spacyTopicModeling.py.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": false
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import matplotlib.pyplot as plt\n",
    "import gensim\n",
    "import numpy as np\n",
    "import spacy\n",
    "\n",
    "from gensim.models import CoherenceModel, LdaModel, LsiModel, HdpModel\n",
    "from gensim.models.wrappers import LdaMallet\n",
    "from gensim.corpora import Dictionary\n",
    "import pyLDAvis.gensim\n",
    "\n",
    "import os, re, operator, warnings\n",
    "warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')  # Let's not pay heed to them right now\n",
    "%matplotlib inline"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 26,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "娀 Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "2013, Vol. 56, No. 2, 334–357.\n",
      "http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.0512\n",
      "EMOTION HELPING BY MANAGERS:\n",
      "AN EMERGENT UNDERSTANDING OF DISCREPANT\n",
      "ROLE EXPECTATIONS AND OUTCOMES\n",
      "GINKA TOEGEL\n",
      "IMD, Lausanne\n",
      "MARTIN KILDUFF\n",
      "University College London\n",
      "N. ANAND\n",
      "IMD, Lausanne\n",
      "Why do managers help employees with their negative emotions, and how do employees\n",
      "respond? We analyzed interview and network data from the head office of a recruiting\n",
      "agency. We found that managers active in the provision of emotion help thought of\n",
      "such help as over and above their managerial duties, whereas employees defined\n",
      "emotional support as managerial in-role behavior. Both parties accepted the necessity\n",
      "of controlling negative emotions for the good of the organization. But those being\n",
      "helped tended to perceive their helpers as doubly powerful figures, invested with both\n",
      "formal authority and parental authority, whereas the helpers saw themselves as\n",
      "reacting to situational contingencies to do favors for subordinates in need. Our results\n",
      "point to an emergent understanding of discrepant interpretations. Employees treat\n",
      "caring as part of the managers’ role that requires no reciprocation, whereas managers\n",
      "see such help-giving as discretionary extra-role behavior that requires reciprocated\n",
      "commitment. Discrepant expectations concerning emotion helping leads to positive\n",
      "outcomes (e.g., managers being attributed leadership qualities by subordinates) but\n",
      "also negative outcomes (e.g., managers feeling disappointed at the lack of reciprocity).\n",
      "We contribute an emergent model of discrepant interpretations concerning emotion\n",
      "helping with implications for research on leadership, emotion management, and\n",
      "critical theory.\n",
      "The provision of emotion help is the subject of\n",
      "continuing debate between labor and management\n",
      "concerning who should be in control of the process\n",
      "(Bacharach, Bamberger, & Sonnenstuhl, 1996: 481).\n",
      "Paralleling this controversy, there are widely dif-\n",
      "fering views among researchers concerning man-\n",
      "agement provision of emotional help to employees.\n",
      "Critical theorists argue that traditionally private as-\n",
      "pects of life—such as emotions—should not be sub-\n",
      "sumed under the managerial gaze (Bolton, 2005).\n",
      "But a variety of approaches derived from social\n",
      "exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Lawler & Thye, 1999)\n",
      "suggest that the provision of emotion help is part of\n",
      "an exchange arrangement by which employees re-\n",
      "ciprocate increased commitment, performance, or\n",
      "personal favors. Thus, social exchange researchers\n",
      "concerned with employee-organizational relation-\n",
      "ships suggest that a caring attitude toward employ-\n",
      "ees enhances employees’ affective commitment to\n",
      "their organization (Tsui, Pearce, Porter, & Tripoli,\n",
      "1997). Similarly, recent extensions to leader-mem-\n",
      "ber exchange (LMX) theory show that a supervisor\n",
      "who establishes a supportive relationship with key\n",
      "subordinates through the provision of emotional\n",
      "and other kinds of support generates organizational\n",
      "commitment on the part of the employees which, in\n",
      "turn, is expected to lead to in-role and extra-role\n",
      "increases in employee performance (Eisenberger et\n",
      "We thank Peter Bamberger for his consistently helpful\n",
      "guidance throughout the review process, and three re-\n",
      "viewers for their insightful comments. Prior versions of\n",
      "this article benefited from comments from Sally Maitlis\n",
      "and Hugh Willmott, to whom we extend heartfelt thanks.\n",
      "The article was also improved through presentations at\n",
      "the University of Alberta (2007), the Academy of Man-\n",
      "agement meeting (2008), OTREG at the University of\n",
      "Cambridge (2010), and the organizational behavior read-\n",
      "ing group at the University of Cambridge (2010).\n",
      "334\n",
      "Copyright of the Academy of Management, all rights reserved. Contents may not be copied, emailed, posted to a listserv, or otherwise transmitted without the copyright holder’s express\n",
      "written permission. Users may print, download, or email articles for individual use only.2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "al., 2010). Further, supervisors who provide sup-\n",
      "port to their subordinates can, according to LMX\n",
      "theory, expect their subordinates to reciprocate by\n",
      "doing favors for the supervisors (Wayne, Shore, &\n",
      "Liden, 1997).\n",
      "Although the importance of social exchange in\n",
      "the context of emotion help and other forms of\n",
      "prosocial and organizational citizenship behaviors\n",
      "(OCBs) between managers and subordinates is well\n",
      "established (Organ, 1988), questions concerning\n",
      "why and how managers engage in the process of\n",
      "helping subordinates with their negative emotions\n",
      "remain to be answered. The process of exchange\n",
      "does not adequately explain why supervisors\n",
      "would overcome the general human tendency of\n",
      "avoiding people perceived to be suffering from neg-\n",
      "ative emotions (see the discussion in Hareli and\n",
      "Rafaeli [2008: 46]), given that such help is often\n",
      "taken for granted by recipients (George & Brief,\n",
      "1992: 311), and given that supervisors who provide\n",
      "such help are reported to suffer detrimental per-\n",
      "sonal and career consequences (Frost, 2003).\n",
      "Our contribution is to build from case research\n",
      "toward an emergent model of discrepant interpre-\n",
      "tations concerning managerial emotion helping in\n",
      "organizations. We identify different types of emo-\n",
      "tion help and describe how discrepant views of\n",
      "emotion helping on the part of managers and sub-\n",
      "ordinates contribute to outcomes both positive and\n",
      "negative. Drawing from a review of employee help-\n",
      "seeking research (Bamberger, 2009), we contribute\n",
      "to leadership research, research on emotion man-\n",
      "agement, and a critical theory perspective to the\n",
      "developing literature that takes a more nuanced\n",
      "approach to OCB (Bergeron, 2007; Bolino, 1999;\n",
      "Spector & Fox, 2010; Van Dyne & Ellis, 2004).\n",
      "Given competing demands on managers to con-\n",
      "trol work activity and promote employee welfare,\n",
      "our data show that managers and subordinates dis-\n",
      "agreed as to whether managerial efforts to amelio-\n",
      "rate employees’ negative emotions represented dis-\n",
      "cretionary good citizenship behavior or expected\n",
      "managerial role enactment (cf. Katz and Kahn\n",
      "[1966] on incompatible role expectations). This in-\n",
      "congruence extended to the expectation of reci-\n",
      "procity, with subordinates seeing little or no obli-\n",
      "gation to reciprocate for emotion help received,\n",
      "whereas managers expected reciprocation in the\n",
      "form of subordinate commitment and personal loy-\n",
      "alty. Representing the viewpoint of the managers,\n",
      "the CEO of the company we studied noted: “It is\n",
      "human nature, isn’t it? When you do something for\n",
      "someone, you always kind of expect to be recipro-\n",
      "335\n",
      "cated. If we go to the pub and I buy you a drink, it\n",
      "will sort of be expected that the next time around,\n",
      "you buy me one. It is in every element of our\n",
      "culture— except in the workplace. They [direct re-\n",
      "ports] don’t see that.”\n",
      "Emotional expression is a constitutive aspect of\n",
      "exchange processes (Lawler & Thye, 1999: 239), but\n",
      "between a manager and a subordinate exchange\n",
      "processes are also overlaid with differences in role\n",
      "expectations. If a manager sees provision of help as\n",
      "extra-role behavior, the manager is likely to expect\n",
      "payback in the form of specific, personally pro-\n",
      "vided help in the future, given the prevalence of\n",
      "reciprocity norms in social interaction (Cialdini,\n",
      "Vincent, Lewis, Catalan, Wheeler, & Darby, 1975).\n",
      "To the extent that employees feel themselves so-\n",
      "cially indebted to managers, they are likely to feel\n",
      "bound to the social system that provides them with\n",
      "emotion help. Thus, the provision of help by man-\n",
      "agers to employees suffering negative emotions can\n",
      "be seen as promoting dependency, particularly to\n",
      "the extent that there is likely to be ambiguity as to\n",
      "whether and when social indebtedness has been\n",
      "repaid (Gouldner, 1960: 175).\n",
      "Indeed, employees are more likely to access help\n",
      "with emotional problems, to the extent that they\n",
      "perceive that there are no expectations concerning\n",
      "immediate and direct payback to specific managers\n",
      "(Bamberger, 2009: 76 –77). Thus, the stage is set for\n",
      "managers to be disappointed by the absence of re-\n",
      "ciprocation by employees who have been helped.\n",
      "Employees in general tend to view supervisors as\n",
      "acting on behalf of the organization (Rousseau,\n",
      "1989). According to recent extensions to LMX the-\n",
      "ory, when employees identify their supervisor with\n",
      "the organization, they are likely to “attribute favor-\n",
      "able treatment by the supervisor to the organization\n",
      "and, as a result, feel obligated to the organization”\n",
      "(Eisenberger et al., 2010: 3). Thus, the supervisor is\n",
      "likely to feel disappointed if he or she is expecting\n",
      "personal reciprocity rather than a more generalized\n",
      "reciprocity toward the organization itself.\n",
      "Emotion helping by managers is puzzling from a\n",
      "theoretical point of view, given that managers pay a\n",
      "price in terms of burnout and career stagnation for\n",
      "monitoring and helping employees deal with neg-\n",
      "ative emotions (Frost, 2003). Emotion helping be-\n",
      "haviors include talking, listening, and expressing\n",
      "concern or empathy for distressed individuals (Zel-\n",
      "lars & Perrewé, 2001), and these behaviors consti-\n",
      "tute part of a larger category of discretionary ac-\n",
      "tions referred to as organizational citizenship\n",
      "behaviors (Organ, 1988, 1997). Through an analysis336\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "of interview data from both managers and employ-\n",
      "ees in a typical service organization, we develop a\n",
      "model of emotion helping in organizations that\n",
      "takes account of incongruence between managers\n",
      "and employees with respect to how emotion help is\n",
      "perceived and whether reciprocation is required for\n",
      "such emotion help.\n",
      "EMOTION MANAGEMENT IN\n",
      "THE SERVICE SECTOR\n",
      "In today’s workplace, most jobs involve service\n",
      "encounters, so there has been renewed attention to\n",
      "the management of emotions in person-to-person\n",
      "encounters (e.g., Grandey, 2008) and the manage-\n",
      "ment of emotional attachments by employees to\n",
      "work groups (e.g., Lawler, Thye, & Yoon, 2009).\n",
      "Such has been the “heightened enthusiasm” on the\n",
      "part of practitioners and academics concerning the\n",
      "management of emotions that there has been a\n",
      "“near explosion of research” on the topic (Elfen-\n",
      "bein, 2007: 316), and this has been paralleled by the\n",
      "provision of related leadership development and\n",
      "executive coaching courses (see Peltier [2010] for\n",
      "an overview of practitioner topics).\n",
      "In the service sector, therefore, emotional labor—\n",
      "defined as “the process of regulating both feelings\n",
      "and expressions for the organizational goals”\n",
      "(Grandey, 2000: 97)—is a major part of what is\n",
      "monitored at work by employers who are in the\n",
      "business of selling good feelings to customers\n",
      "(Hochschild, 1983). Employees are expected to reg-\n",
      "ulate their emotions, even when experiencing\n",
      "stress and exhaustion (Grandey, 2000, 2003). In-\n",
      "deed, “‘service with a smile’ is perceived as an\n",
      "in-role job requirement for those with frequent in-\n",
      "terpersonal contact” (Grandey, 2008: 247). Manag-\n",
      "ers are called upon to be alert to signs that employ-\n",
      "ees are suffering from negative emotions, and are\n",
      "asked to be prepared to “intervene effectively and\n",
      "preventively” (Ashkanasy & Daus, 2002: 80). To the\n",
      "extent that work requires emotional labor, there-\n",
      "fore, managers are likely to notice decrements in\n",
      "emotional tone on the part of employees. Managing\n",
      "subordinates’ emotions is now considered “one of\n",
      "the main ways leaders influence performance”\n",
      "(Humphrey, 2002: 497) and is seen as particularly\n",
      "useful in times of shrinking budgets, when keeping\n",
      "customers satisfied can prove challenging (Bolton,\n",
      "2005: 60).\n",
      "The increase in scholarly attention toward emo-\n",
      "tion helping in the workplace suggests that this\n",
      "seldom-observed phenomenon may be more perva-\n",
      "April\n",
      "sive than once thought. One label for such helpers\n",
      "is “toxin handler,” and the work that they do can be\n",
      "summarized as “responding compassionately to\n",
      "[colleagues experiencing emotional] pain in their\n",
      "organization” (Frost, 2003: 62). An empirical study\n",
      "of middle managers in an organization reported\n",
      "that a number of them “formed a group that at-\n",
      "tended to employees’ emotional needs” (Huy, 2005:\n",
      "310). A study of 48 senior managers in Chinese\n",
      "state-owned enterprises revealed that many of them\n",
      "used positive emotional experiences to help col-\n",
      "leagues adapt and be more productive (Krone &\n",
      "Morgan, 2000).\n",
      "Historically, it was trade unions that fostered a\n",
      "culture whereby members helped each other deal\n",
      "with problems, such as emotional distress, that af-\n",
      "fected individuals’ well-being. The mutual-aid\n",
      "logic of unionism emphasized community, family,\n",
      "and caring, and provided a vocabulary for articu-\n",
      "lating grievances against employers (Bacharach,\n",
      "Bamberger, & Sonnenstuhl, 2001). As trade union-\n",
      "ism in countries such as the US and the UK moved\n",
      "toward a logic of bureaucratized servicing of mem-\n",
      "bers through the negotiation of material gains, the\n",
      "old ethos of mutual aid has tended to decline, al-\n",
      "though there are signs of renewal in some indus-\n",
      "tries (Bacharach et al., 2001). More generally, emo-\n",
      "tional problems in the workplace have tended to\n",
      "become issues for Human Resource departments to\n",
      "deal with through such innovations as employee\n",
      "assistance programs.\n",
      "But HR departments cannot survey and control\n",
      "all the discrepant emotions emerging in the myriad\n",
      "of interactions taking place in modern service or-\n",
      "ganizations. Nor can such departments anticipate\n",
      "and deal with the spillover of negative emotions\n",
      "into the workplace from crises in the home. Emo-\n",
      "tions are created and reproduced through interac-\n",
      "tions with other people, and these emotions are\n",
      "subject to only limited control by bureaucracy\n",
      "(Lawler et al., 2009: 9 –10). Negative emotions,\n",
      "whether carried over from home or emerging in the\n",
      "workplace, threaten productivity (Latané & Arro-\n",
      "wood, 1963) and can spread across the organization\n",
      "to affect other employees’ cooperation and work\n",
      "performance (Barsade, 2002). Thus, in those organ-\n",
      "izations in which being upbeat is seen as a job\n",
      "requirement, there is likely to be active managerial\n",
      "scrutiny of employees’ emotional states to prevent\n",
      "disruption of organizational performance.\n",
      "Some managers may take on the onerous task of\n",
      "dealing with others’ negative emotions and become\n",
      "martyrs to their own altruistic tendencies, often2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "suffering career problems in bureaucratic organiza-\n",
      "tions ill-suited to emotional coping (Frost, 2003).\n",
      "From this “caring” perspective, managers intervene\n",
      "to help others solve their emotional problems out of\n",
      "a personal desire to ease the sufferings of col-\n",
      "leagues rather than because intervention is man-\n",
      "dated by the managerial role (e.g., Martin, Knopoff,\n",
      "& Beckman, 1998). Thus, emotion helping may be\n",
      "framed by managers as a “gift” rather than an oblig-\n",
      "atory aspect of the role (Bolton, 2005: 240).\n",
      "OVERVIEW OF EMOTION HELPING\n",
      "We used a case-based approach combined with\n",
      "intensive reading of relevant literature to investi-\n",
      "gate emotion helping in a recruiting agency. To\n",
      "structure our findings, we foreshadow here the the-\n",
      "oretical directions and questions that emerged. In\n",
      "general, we found two different interpretations\n",
      "concerning why managers engage in emotion help-\n",
      "ing. Subordinates interpreted interventions by\n",
      "managers to ameliorate others’ emotional pain as\n",
      "in-role managerial behavior, given the potential for\n",
      "negative emotions to adversely affect productivity.\n",
      "In contrast, such interventions were often seen by\n",
      "the managers themselves as extra-role behavior,\n",
      "proceeding from intentions unrelated to managerial\n",
      "role demands.\n",
      "Four questions guided our research into emotion\n",
      "helping. First, to what extent do managers actually\n",
      "incorporate the emotion-helping function in their\n",
      "repertoire of behaviors (cf. Toegel, Anand, &\n",
      "Kilduff, 2007)? A related aspect of this first ques-\n",
      "tion concerns whether some managers actively\n",
      "monitor the emotional expressions of employees\n",
      "and intervene when they notice that employees\n",
      "look upset. Or does the management of emotions\n",
      "require waiting for employees to request manage-\n",
      "rial help, given that the vast majority of helping-\n",
      "based interactions in organizations are initiated by\n",
      "someone seeking help (Bamberger, 2009: 50)? Sec-\n",
      "ond, what motivates managers to engage in the\n",
      "potentially unpleasant task of intervening in the\n",
      "management of others’ negative emotions?\n",
      "A third issue concerns whether emotion helping\n",
      "is seen as in-role or extra-role behavior by those\n",
      "providing the care and those to whom it is provided\n",
      "(cf. Dyne & LePine, 1998). Do managers and em-\n",
      "ployees differ concerning whether managers, as\n",
      "part of their jobs, are expected to engage in emotion\n",
      "management? Relatedly, does the acceptance of\n",
      "help for emotional problems require payback in the\n",
      "form of the expenditure of personal resources (cf.\n",
      "337\n",
      "Bamberger, 2009), and do managers and employees\n",
      "view this issue of reciprocity differently?\n",
      "A fourth research question was prompted by our\n",
      "emergent finding that managers and subordinates\n",
      "differed as to whether emotion help could be con-\n",
      "sidered extra-role behavior on the part of managers;\n",
      "and our finding that managers and subordinates\n",
      "also differed as to whether managerially provided\n",
      "emotion help should be reciprocated. This question\n",
      "involved investigating whether different types of\n",
      "emotion helping prompted different outcomes from\n",
      "discrepant interpretations on the part of managers\n",
      "and subordinates. Thus, we categorized different\n",
      "types of helping behaviors and examined how dis-\n",
      "crepant interpretations of the helping behaviors led\n",
      "to positive and negative outcomes.\n",
      "Given that these interrelated questions have not\n",
      "been addressed in prior theory, we build from re-\n",
      "sults toward an emergent process model of when,\n",
      "why, and how managers provide help with subor-\n",
      "dinates’ negative emotions, as well as surfacing\n",
      "both positive and negative outcomes from discrep-\n",
      "ant interpretations concerning emotion helping.\n",
      "METHODS\n",
      "Site\n",
      "We studied the head office of a recruiting agency\n",
      "specializing in providing managerial staff for retail\n",
      "outlets such as grocery stores. The company was\n",
      "founded in 1988 by an entrepreneur who left his\n",
      "job at an executive placement agency. In contrast to\n",
      "its competitors, the company emphasized both ef-\n",
      "ficiency of database management and effectiveness\n",
      "of relationship building with prospective jobseek-\n",
      "ers and the companies that hired them. Revenues\n",
      "had tripled during the most recent four-year period,\n",
      "while the number of full-time employees had dou-\n",
      "bled to 67 (38 women, 29 men). As the largest\n",
      "specialist retail recruitment agency in its market,\n",
      "the company received about 500 original résumés\n",
      "each week and was the largest classified advertiser\n",
      "in the urban area in which it was located. Employee\n",
      "turnover at the company was less than 5 percent a\n",
      "year, compared to an industry average of close to 40\n",
      "percent.\n",
      "We were fortunate in establishing strong, trusting\n",
      "relations with the members of this particular organ-\n",
      "ization, and thereby achieved unusual access to\n",
      "thoughts and feelings concerning managerial help-\n",
      "ing interventions. Such access is a prerequisite for338\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "case-based theory building (Eisenhardt & Graeb-\n",
      "ner, 2007).\n",
      "Procedure\n",
      "Emotion helping across ranks. We collected so-\n",
      "cial network data concerning who went to whom\n",
      "for emotion help to examine whether managers\n",
      "(relative to subordinates) were more active in the\n",
      "network. The data were collected as part of a larger\n",
      "study by means of a questionnaire sent through\n",
      "e-mail to all 67 employees. We assured respondents\n",
      "that their responses would be confidential, and we\n",
      "provided debriefing sessions following data collec-\n",
      "tion. After two follow-up reminder e-mails, all 67\n",
      "employees had responded concerning the network\n",
      "data reported here.\n",
      "To construct the emotion-helping network, we\n",
      "collected information from respondents concerning\n",
      "who helped them deal with their negative emo-\n",
      "tions. On the questionnaire, respondents were\n",
      "asked to look down an alphabetical roster of em-\n",
      "ployees and indicate the people who helped them\n",
      "deal with their negative emotions at work: “Please\n",
      "look down the alphabetical list of your fellow em-\n",
      "ployees and place a check mark to indicate all the\n",
      "names of those people who you think help you\n",
      "when you need support in times of trouble to cope\n",
      "with your personal problems and your negative\n",
      "emotions.”\n",
      "To examine the extent to which lower-level em-\n",
      "ployees tended to nominate those with higher lev-\n",
      "els of managerial responsibility as emotion helpers,\n",
      "we first used company records to categorize people\n",
      "into three categories (high, middle, low) based on\n",
      "their level of managerial responsibility. This cate-\n",
      "gorization was checked and confirmed by the com-\n",
      "pany’s CEO for accuracy. Then we calculated, for\n",
      "each category, the extent of homophily; that is, the\n",
      "extent to which people nominated same-category\n",
      "others as those who helped manage and alleviate\n",
      "their emotional distress. Of particular interest are\n",
      "the adjusted homophily scores; that is, scores ad-\n",
      "justed for the relative availability of people in dif-\n",
      "ferent categories. What may appear as a tendency\n",
      "on the part of people of a certain category to nom-\n",
      "inate people of the same category may be attribut-\n",
      "able to the proportionately higher number of peo-\n",
      "ple of that category. Adjusted homophily scores\n",
      "can range from ⫺1 (all nominations to those of a\n",
      "different category) to ⫹1 (all nominations to those\n",
      "of the same category). (See Krackhardt [1990] for an\n",
      "April\n",
      "example of this procedure, and Gower and Leg-\n",
      "endre [1986] for complete details.)\n",
      "Inductive qualitative study. In preparation for\n",
      "systematic guided questioning, we interviewed five\n",
      "employees (ranging from junior to senior, in terms\n",
      "of hierarchical levels) to learn about job tasks and\n",
      "the culture of the organization, shadowed a senior\n",
      "consultant for one workday to observe patterns of\n",
      "task-related and social interactions, observed a cus-\n",
      "tomer-handling skills training session for junior\n",
      "employees, and participated in many informal meet-\n",
      "ings and conversations across the organization.\n",
      "Of the 21 employees who worked in a managerial\n",
      "capacity (including partners, senior consultants,\n",
      "assignment managers, and supervisory administra-\n",
      "tors), we interviewed 14 (6 men, 8 women). Some\n",
      "managers were unavailable for interviews, because\n",
      "they were involved in starting up a branch of the\n",
      "firm in another city. Two individuals in the top\n",
      "management level were interviewed on two differ-\n",
      "ent occasions, once to provide an overall picture\n",
      "or “grand tour” (cf. Spradley, 1979: 86 – 87) of the\n",
      "organization’s business and its manner of function-\n",
      "ing, and a second time to talk about emotion help.\n",
      "We also interviewed the CEO multiple times. Given\n",
      "the relatively large number of subordinates, we\n",
      "used data saturation as the trigger to stop further\n",
      "data collection (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). We found\n",
      "that by the time we interviewed the 16th employee,\n",
      "much of the information was repetitive. In all, we\n",
      "interviewed 30 (14 men, 16 women) employees,\n",
      "representing 45 percent of the headquarters’\n",
      "personnel.\n",
      "Interviews lasted about an hour, on average, and\n",
      "followed a semistructured protocol (included in\n",
      "the Appendix). We used a mixture of descriptive\n",
      "and contrast questions (Spradley, 1979). We began\n",
      "with a descriptive question asking participants to\n",
      "tell us about a situation in which they experienced\n",
      "stress, anxiety, tension, or emotional pain, and then\n",
      "asked them to characterize the fellow employee or\n",
      "any other person who helped them through the\n",
      "experience (see the Appendix). We used contrast\n",
      "questions such as “Does everybody in the firm pro-\n",
      "vide such help or only some people?” We used\n",
      "emerging themes from initial interviews to guide\n",
      "data collection in subsequent ones.\n",
      "To uncover the expectations and motivations of\n",
      "organizational members requires a grounding in the\n",
      "organization’s culture to produce a first-order anal-\n",
      "ysis framed around the dominant themes expressed\n",
      "by the participants (Gioia & Chittipeddi, 1991: 435).\n",
      "A second-order commentary comes later, providing2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "a theoretical explanation of the themes that sur-\n",
      "faced through interviews with employees and man-\n",
      "agers. To provide the more dispassionate view re-\n",
      "quired by a second-order commentary, we followed\n",
      "prior work (e.g., Gioia, Thomas, Clark, & Chitti-\n",
      "peddi, 1994) and employed two members of the\n",
      "research team to conduct interviewers, and a third\n",
      "person to help provide a retrospective, more objec-\n",
      "tive analysis of the data.\n",
      "Analysis of interview data. Figures 1 and 2\n",
      "show the progression of the first-order analysis\n",
      "leading to emergent themes concerning incongru-\n",
      "ent expectations (Figure 1) and reciprocity (Figure\n",
      "2). We used NVivo software (Richards, 1999) to\n",
      "group together the different situations that our in-\n",
      "formants described when they needed emotion\n",
      "help, such as anxieties related to deadlines, fear of\n",
      "not meeting monthly targets, death or illness of a\n",
      "family member, or other domestic issues. We then\n",
      "assembled groupings that related to similar issues\n",
      "or relationships into broader aggregations of infor-\n",
      "mant sensemaking (see the first column in Figures\n",
      "1 and 2) and furnished these with an appropriate\n",
      "339\n",
      "informant-relevant label (e.g., first entry, first col-\n",
      "umn in Figure 1: “emotion help is not in managers’\n",
      "job description”). The next step was to compare the\n",
      "data from different interviewees and to develop a\n",
      "list of higher order analytic dimensions (Van\n",
      "Maanen, 1988), complete with descriptors that fa-\n",
      "cilitate theoretical analysis (e.g., second column in\n",
      "Figure 1: “managers perceive emotion help to be\n",
      "extra-role behavior”). Finally, we used data dis-\n",
      "plays (cf. Miles & Huberman, 1994) to create more\n",
      "general emergent themes (e.g., third column in Fig-\n",
      "ure 1: “incongruence in the expectation of emotion\n",
      "help”), useful for building the emergent theoreti-\n",
      "cal model.\n",
      "In presenting the results below, we numbered\n",
      "our interviewees and provided information on their\n",
      "rank in the organization to clarify precisely where\n",
      "information was derived from. The quotes are la-\n",
      "beled with the following categories: E-1 (employee\n",
      "1); MM-1 (middle manager 1), and HLM-1 (high-\n",
      "level manager 1). Informants that were interviewed\n",
      "in our preparatory interviews are prefixed PI-1\n",
      "(preparatory informant 1). We have provided an\n",
      "FIGURE 1\n",
      "Incongruent Expectations Concerning the Role of Emotion Help in Managerial Behavior\n",
      "First-Order Analysis: Informant\n",
      "Analytic Dimensions\n",
      "Emergent Theme\n",
      "Emotion help is not in managers’ job description\n",
      "Quote: “ Providing [emotion] help is extra, it’s not in your job description.”\n",
      "Emotion help as a voluntary, extra effort on managers’ part\n",
      "Quote: “They [direct reports] should know that what I am doing [by way\n",
      "of emotion help] is over and above my responsibilities as a manager.”\n",
      "Managers perceive\n",
      "emotion help to be\n",
      "extra-role\n",
      "behavior\n",
      "Emotion help as an expression of disposition rather a managerial\n",
      "job requirement\n",
      "Quote: “It’s not part of my job, it’s me, the way I am.”\n",
      "Emotion help is the “natural” responsibility of managers\n",
      "Quote: “The role of the managers is to support and look after their staff. This would be\n",
      "a natural thing to do.”\n",
      "Managers should provide support for work-related emotional difficulty\n",
      "Quote: “If it is a work-related emotional problem, then it is my\n",
      "manager’s job to support me.”\n",
      "Employees view\n",
      "emotion help as\n",
      "in-role behavior\n",
      "of managers\n",
      "Managers should help solve emotion-related problems\n",
      "Quote: “[As a manager] you have to be approachable so that people can come and\n",
      "say: ‘I have a problem.’ I had a manager like that before. While now, it is not really\n",
      "[like that] here anymore [with respect to my supervisor].”\n",
      "Incongruent\n",
      "expectations of\n",
      "emotion help340\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "April\n",
      "FIGURE 2\n",
      "Incongruent Expectations Concerning Reciprocity for Emotion Help\n",
      "First-Order Analysis: Informant Sensemaking\n",
      "Analytic Dimensions\n",
      "Emergent Theme\n",
      "Emotion help is not part of a manager’s job, hence other invokes reciprocity\n",
      "Quote: “If it is not officially part of your manager’s job to help [you] through an\n",
      "[emotionally difficult] situation, then there should be reciprocation other than\n",
      "‘Oh, it’s part of your job to help me through this.’”\n",
      "Managers expect\n",
      "Managers can instrumentally expect greater commitment\n",
      "reciprocation\n",
      "Quote: “[By providing emotion help] you would get more commitment .... through\n",
      "You build 100% loyalty and if I ask my people to do something over\n",
      "commitment and\n",
      "and above, it would be done.”\n",
      "recognition\n",
      "Recognition expected from subordinates for prosocially motivated help\n",
      "Quote: “Providing emotion help is about the [warmth] you receive.”\n",
      "No reciprocity should be expected\n",
      "Quote: “Should there be any payback [for providing emotion help]? In an ideal\n",
      "world—no.”\n",
      "Limited and specific reciprocity\n",
      "Quote: “There could be some payback on a personal level maybe. They\n",
      "[managers] should be able to talk to you, as well as you would be able\n",
      "to speak to them.”\n",
      "Incongruent\n",
      "expectations\n",
      "concerning\n",
      "reciprocity for\n",
      "emotion help\n",
      "Employees see no\n",
      "need or limited\n",
      "and specific\n",
      "obligation to\n",
      "reciprocate\n",
      "Quote: “If your manager supports you emotionally, then you might\n",
      "want to return the favor .... I am an emotion helper to my boss.”\n",
      "extensive analysis of organizational culture, so as\n",
      "to situate the results in the context of a typical,\n",
      "albeit high-performing, service company.\n",
      "RESULTS\n",
      "Company Culture\n",
      "The CEO recruited new employees through an\n",
      "assessment center that used occupational personal-\n",
      "ity questionnaires, resulting in the hiring of “very\n",
      "like-minded and likeable” people (HLM-2). Job de-\n",
      "scriptions were detailed and precise. The head of-\n",
      "fice staff (the focus of our study) worked in a series\n",
      "of town houses in a residential area of the city. All\n",
      "employees other than the CEO occupied desks in\n",
      "open-plan rooms in full view of colleagues, mean-\n",
      "ing that any behavior, including help-seeking be-\n",
      "havior, was likely to be fully exposed to others. One\n",
      "of the managers commented concerning the visibil-\n",
      "ity of workplace activity: “We all know exactly\n",
      "what each other is billing. It’s very open, there are\n",
      "financial spreadsheets we all look at, we have ac-\n",
      "cess to. Nothing is hidden” (MM-1). The atmo-\n",
      "sphere was friendly and collegial, with one em-\n",
      "ployee commenting as follows concerning social\n",
      "interaction: “A lot of friendships are formed, a lot\n",
      "of relationships are formed through the company as\n",
      "well in terms of people popping off and getting\n",
      "married” (E-14).\n",
      "Recruitment consultants interacted mainly with\n",
      "three sets of people: work-team colleagues, clients\n",
      "(i.e., representatives of retailers seeking skilled\n",
      "workers), and job candidates. A junior consultant\n",
      "said that she had become “ruthless” at “seeing\n",
      "when I can help candidates and when I can’t” (PI-\n",
      "1). A senior consultant reported that the most crit-\n",
      "ical skill that she needed was “emotional intelli-\n",
      "gence and being able to read people” (MM-7) while\n",
      "interviewing them. Emotional regulation was also\n",
      "important— consultants were expected to present\n",
      "themselves as calm and composed while interact-\n",
      "ing with clients. The CEO reinforced these expec-\n",
      "tations in training seminars by recollecting an epi-\n",
      "sode in which he “exchanged some fairly sharp\n",
      "words” with a client, and why losing control of his\n",
      "emotions in this way was detrimental to business.\n",
      "On the day of the work-shadowing, one senior con-\n",
      "sultant was observed spending about 20 minutes2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "repairing her make-up and grooming herself ahead\n",
      "of a luncheon meeting with a client, noting: “I’ve\n",
      "got to put my best face on” (HLM-6).\n",
      "The CEO described himself as efficient, orga-\n",
      "nized, and meticulous; this was borne out in our\n",
      "observations of him. He regarded his main achieve-\n",
      "ment as bringing a systematic approach to recruit-\n",
      "ing involving measurement, control, and testing. In\n",
      "particular, a computer program tracked precisely\n",
      "how many interviews with potential job placement\n",
      "candidates each recruitment consultant achieved:\n",
      "“The computer will spit it out. Because everything\n",
      "they [the recruiters] do goes through the system.”\n",
      "The company had no special assistance programs\n",
      "or chaplains to help employees with their emo-\n",
      "tional distress. During the first wave of interviews,\n",
      "we asked if there should be a formal role of emotion\n",
      "helper in the organization. Sixty percent of respon-\n",
      "dents disagreed. One of them commented, “If they\n",
      "[employees] can talk to whoever, it’s better than\n",
      "having to go to one person” (E-3).\n",
      "Internal promotion was carefully monitored in\n",
      "this organization. One of the employees reflected\n",
      "on the internal exams that measured promotability:\n",
      "“There is a very explicit documented process for\n",
      "the way of working. . . . There are four grades,\n",
      "A–D. . . . I’m due to take on a C grade exam next\n",
      "month. You have certain criteria which are in the\n",
      "terms and conditions which everyone is aware\n",
      "of. . . . The exam itself is a written exam and then is\n",
      "checked to see if you know what you are talking\n",
      "about” (PI-1). Another employee added, “There are\n",
      "a lot of internal courses. . . . All that time you are\n",
      "assessed and you have a weekly review meeting\n",
      "with your own mentor and you have monthly re-\n",
      "views with the divisional directors” (PI-2). Formal\n",
      "mentoring meetings focused on performance feed-\n",
      "back and organizational problem solving rather\n",
      "than on social or emotional support. Indeed, the\n",
      "CEO described how such performance feedback\n",
      "could be used to deal with “trouble makers” who\n",
      "didn’t “believe in the way we run the system”:\n",
      "We know we place roughly 10 or 11 percent of the\n",
      "people we interview. So do the math. Ten or 11\n",
      "percent of 100 candidates interviewed is more than\n",
      "10 or 11 percent of 50 candidates interviewed. It’s\n",
      "about activity. It always has been, always will be.\n",
      "Get over it. When we go back to these trouble mak-\n",
      "ers, they are the ones that want to interview less.\n",
      "They don’t believe in the way we run the system. So\n",
      "they start telling others, “Don’t do it the [company]\n",
      "way, do it this way.” We have to crush them. . . . You\n",
      "can’t win all hearts and minds. (CEO)\n",
      "341\n",
      "The CEO also commented on the importance of\n",
      "managing negative emotions in the workplace, as\n",
      "follows: “If you have negative feelings, if you got\n",
      "people working in a way that they don’t like each\n",
      "other, in a sales environment it is fatal. Then they\n",
      "work to hurt each other. That means hurting each\n",
      "others’ sales as well. . . . That needs managing very\n",
      "carefully.”\n",
      "Sources of Negative Emotion\n",
      "Our informants reported that managers had\n",
      "helped them with a variety of negative emotional\n",
      "experiences encompassing both personal and pro-\n",
      "fessional realms of life. Approximately 70 percent\n",
      "of our respondents reported that they expected\n",
      "their managers to provide them with emotion help.\n",
      "Asked to give examples of cases in which they\n",
      "needed emotional support, interviewees recounted\n",
      "times when negative emotions were prompted by\n",
      "incidents outside of work such as “a negative situ-\n",
      "ation with my husband” (MM-5) and times when\n",
      "negative emotions were prompted by work-related\n",
      "incidents such as “going through a promotion . . .\n",
      "[when] I had massive amount of client work” (MM-\n",
      "1). Respondents also mentioned job-related anxiet-\n",
      "ies concerning deadlines, not meeting monthly tar-\n",
      "gets, change of work roles, and difficult direct\n",
      "reports. Respondents reported that emotion help-\n",
      "ing was particularly evident on Mondays, at the\n",
      "time of monthly performance appraisals, and dur-\n",
      "ing the months of January and September, when\n",
      "work tended to build up. About half of the situa-\n",
      "tions reported were related to personal issues. Re-\n",
      "spondents mentioned incidents such as illness and\n",
      "death of a family member, and one employee re-\n",
      "called: “Three months ago, I split with my boy-\n",
      "friend and it was horrendous. . . . I was just falling\n",
      "apart and it was awful. I couldn’t concentrate at all”\n",
      "(E-6). Most employees were stressed at work as a\n",
      "result of both work-related problems and problems\n",
      "occurring outside the workplace. Only one inter-\n",
      "viewee said, “I don’t deal with emotional issues at\n",
      "work” (HLM-7). Later in the interview, he men-\n",
      "tioned that psychosomatic problems had driven\n",
      "him to seek outside counseling.\n",
      "Research Question 1: Emotion\n",
      "Helping across the Ranks\n",
      "Did managers incorporate emotion helping in\n",
      "their repertoire of behaviors? The results in Table\n",
      "1 show that managers did indeed incorporate emo-342\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "TABLE 1\n",
      "Extent of Homophily in the Provision of Emotion Help\n",
      "by Managerial Rank a\n",
      "Rank n Mean s.d.\n",
      "High level\n",
      "Middle level\n",
      "Low level 8\n",
      "13\n",
      "46 .43 (.65)\n",
      ".14 (.44)\n",
      "ⴚ.03 (.61) .17\n",
      ".18\n",
      ".18\n",
      "a\n",
      "Mean values indicate the extent to which emotion helping\n",
      "behavior was received from people of the same rank, with pos-\n",
      "itive scores indicating within-rank helping and negative scores\n",
      "indicating cross-rank helping. Bold values are adjusted to take\n",
      "account of the relative number of people in the rank, whereas\n",
      "values in parentheses are unadjusted. All means differ signifi-\n",
      "cantly from one another at p ⬍ .05.\n",
      "tion helping into their repertoire of behaviors in\n",
      "this particular organization. (Note that every man-\n",
      "ager received at least one nomination as an emotion\n",
      "helper, with one manager receiving 29 nomina-\n",
      "tions.) The values in Table 1 show, for each rank,\n",
      "the extent of homophily; that is, the extent to which\n",
      "people nominated same-rank others as those who\n",
      "helped manage and alleviate their emotional dis-\n",
      "tress. The bolded values are homophily scores ad-\n",
      "justed for the relative availability of people in dif-\n",
      "ferent ranks.\n",
      "Table 1 shows that those in the highest manage-\n",
      "rial rank tended to be helped by colleagues of the\n",
      "same rank (as shown by the positive adjusted ho-\n",
      "mophily score of .43), whereas those in the lowest\n",
      "rank (who had no managerial responsibilities)\n",
      "tended to be helped by people from other ranks (as\n",
      "indicated by the negative score of ⫺.03). People of\n",
      "middle managerial rank were similar to those of\n",
      "high rank in their likelihood to turn to those of the\n",
      "same rank for help with emotional problems, al-\n",
      "though the strength of this tendency was lower\n",
      "(adjusted homophily ⫽ .14). All of the means were\n",
      "significantly different from one another (p ⬍ .05).\n",
      "Whereas employees at the lowest level of manage-\n",
      "rial responsibility nominated managers at the high-\n",
      "est level of responsibility 36 times as emotion help-\n",
      "ers, there were only 2 nominations in the other\n",
      "direction (from the highest level to the low-\n",
      "est level).\n",
      "There was, therefore, little crosscutting recipro-\n",
      "cation with respect to emotion helping. One lower-\n",
      "level employee explained that managers tended to\n",
      "“expect reciprocation on a commitment level” (E-\n",
      "10) in return for providing emotion help, rather\n",
      "than expecting reciprocation in terms of ameliorat-\n",
      "ing managers’ negative emotions. One middle man-\n",
      "April\n",
      "ager stated that, “I hope my subordinates have said\n",
      ". . . to my boss that I have helped them” (MM-5).\n",
      "One of the few middle managers who did have a\n",
      "mutual helping relationship with his boss ex-\n",
      "plained, “I would talk about personal issues with\n",
      "[him]. We had worked together for two years and\n",
      "we had developed a friendship relation” (MM-3).\n",
      "Thus, between middle and top managers, recipro-\n",
      "cal emotion helping was possible because of an\n",
      "established friendship relation. However, the more\n",
      "usual situation was reflected in the comments of\n",
      "one of the top managers who stated that, “I don’t\n",
      "think managers expect direct reports to provide\n",
      "emotional support to them” (HLM-7).\n",
      "When was emotion help provided? Thus, in par-\n",
      "tial answer to our first research question, we found\n",
      "that 75 percent of lower-level employees and 71\n",
      "percent of middle managers reported receiving\n",
      "emotion help by those higher in the hierarchy. A\n",
      "second aspect of the first research question con-\n",
      "cerned whether managers were actively involved in\n",
      "intervening to proffer help with others’ emotional\n",
      "problems, or whether managers waited for employ-\n",
      "ees to request help. To structure the remaining\n",
      "findings concerning managerial helping behavior,\n",
      "we summarize in Figure 3 the emergent process\n",
      "model. The dotted line across the first half of the\n",
      "model separates motives and behaviors relating to\n",
      "solicited and unsolicited emotion help.\n",
      "Our data suggest that help was solicited by em-\n",
      "ployees from those managers who appeared partic-\n",
      "ularly accessible. As one subordinate stated: “The\n",
      "best thing [for managers] to do is to be approach-\n",
      "able” (E-1). One manager, who emphasized that she\n",
      "tried to motivate her subordinates when they were\n",
      "feeling down, suggested that the subordinates\n",
      "weren’t always in touch with their negative emo-\n",
      "tions, but that they approached her for clarification\n",
      "of what they were feeling: “without realizing it . . .\n",
      "they are frustrated” (MM-5).\n",
      "Some employees were reluctant to reveal how\n",
      "problems were affecting their emotions at work.\n",
      "The interview data show that 7 of the 14 managers\n",
      "were proactive in overcoming this reluctance on\n",
      "the part of employees to solicit help with emotions.\n",
      "Thus, as Figure 3 summarizes, such managers ac-\n",
      "tively scanned the workplace for signs of unhappy\n",
      "workers, as indicated by this manager:\n",
      "I can very often pre-empt things. You can see that\n",
      "someone is not very happy or is a bit quiet and then\n",
      "approach them. It’s not that everybody feels com-\n",
      "fortable with coming to you. But it’s just saying “Is\n",
      "there something wrong?” If they say “No,” that’s2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "343\n",
      "FIGURE 3\n",
      "Management Emotion Helping and Discrepant Role Attributions\n",
      "Why?\n",
      "Managerial\n",
      "motives for\n",
      "helping\n",
      "When?\n",
      "Prosocial and\n",
      "instrumental\n",
      "managerial\n",
      "motives\n",
      "Perceived\n",
      "accessibility\n",
      "of manager\n",
      "Managers’\n",
      "proactivity:\n",
      "•\n",
      "•\n",
      "Scans\n",
      "workplace\n",
      "for\n",
      "unhappy\n",
      "workers\n",
      "Offers to\n",
      "help those\n",
      "in distress\n",
      "Instrumental\n",
      "managerial\n",
      "motives:\n",
      "•\n",
      "•\n",
      "•\n",
      "Rational and\n",
      "self-interested\n",
      "Anticipated\n",
      "rewards\n",
      "Impression\n",
      "management\n",
      "fine; I have offered my support but they don’t want\n",
      "it. But often people don’t like to be needy. Espe-\n",
      "cially if you are introverted, you like to keep your\n",
      "emotions to yourself. (MM-3)\n",
      "Another manager explained that, “I generally go to\n",
      "people when I see they are distressed. I say, ‘let’s\n",
      "talk for a couple of minutes, let’s have a cup of tea.’\n",
      "I try not to draw attention” (HLM-1). This view was\n",
      "echoed by a senior consultant, who stated: “Most\n",
      "people prefer to feel that their manager cares for\n",
      "them and has noticed that they are not themselves\n",
      "or things are not going quite right, and just to say,\n",
      "‘Are you OK?’” (E-10). The managers who were\n",
      "active in emotion helping seemed to have their\n",
      "antennae tuned to emotional distress among their\n",
      "subordinates and initiated interactions when they\n",
      "spotted such distress. One subordinate described\n",
      "the proactivity of managerial emotion helpers as\n",
      "follows: “They push you a little bit to speak about\n",
      "it: ‘How are you? How are you feeling?’ They ask\n",
      "why I am stressed, why I am upset, and listen to my\n",
      "moaning” (E-4).\n",
      "Helping\n",
      "interaction\n",
      "takes place?\n",
      "Subordinate\n",
      "self-discloses,\n",
      "manager\n",
      "responds\n",
      "Manager\n",
      "intervenes,\n",
      "subordinate\n",
      "self-discloses\n",
      "Discrepant\n",
      "role\n",
      "attributions?\n",
      "Manager\n",
      "sees\n",
      "managerial help\n",
      "as extra-role:\n",
      "Reciprocation\n",
      "expected in the\n",
      "form of\n",
      "commitment,\n",
      "personal loyalty.\n",
      "Subordinate\n",
      "sees\n",
      "managerial help\n",
      "as in-role: Little\n",
      "or no\n",
      "reciprocation\n",
      "required.\n",
      "Manager\n",
      "intervenes,\n",
      "subordinate\n",
      "refuses help\n",
      "Research Question 2: Why Did Managers Help\n",
      "with Employees’ Negative Emotions?\n",
      "Our second research question (mirrored in the\n",
      "second heading in Figure 3) concerns the motiva-\n",
      "tions of managers for providing emotion help. Two\n",
      "basic motives of managers who acted as “emotion\n",
      "helpers” emerged from the study. First, there was a\n",
      "tendency among one set of managers to view the\n",
      "provision of emotion help in an instrumental man-\n",
      "ner. These managers thought that organizational\n",
      "and economic benefits would accrue from helping\n",
      "others cope with their negative emotions, because\n",
      "“the emotional side does affect the money, the\n",
      "sales, and the profits” and “if you provide emo-\n",
      "tional support, you’ll get a return on that” (MM-3).\n",
      "According to one of the managers:\n",
      "To a certain degree, there’s self-interest there. I don’t\n",
      "want that people leave, or I don’t want them to be\n",
      "really low or down at work, because this will have\n",
      "negative impact on me. I like to have a very positive\n",
      "environment. I want people around me to be posi-344\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "tive, and if people are very negative or down, it rubs\n",
      "off on everybody else. . . . (MM-5)\n",
      "Another high-ranking manager commented: “I have\n",
      "to [provide emotion help], otherwise it [negative\n",
      "emotion] will spread like fire” (HLM-7).\n",
      "Managers taking an instrumental view of emo-\n",
      "tion help expected their investment in the well-\n",
      "being of their subordinates to be reciprocated with\n",
      "commitment and recognition, as shown in Figure 2,\n",
      "which summarizes the emergent themes concern-\n",
      "ing reciprocity. A second and more prosocial mo-\n",
      "tive for emotion help characterized managers who\n",
      "expressed “curiosity” about their colleagues. Such\n",
      "managers tended to make dispositional attributions\n",
      "about themselves; for example: “[Providing emo-\n",
      "tion help] is not part of my job, it’s me, the way I\n",
      "am . . .” (MM-5). The same female manager com-\n",
      "mented that her motivation to help others through\n",
      "difficult emotions came from “being a little bit\n",
      "nosy.” She liked to know “what is going on and to\n",
      "get involved.” Another one made it clear, “It makes\n",
      "my job really interesting, because I have interest in\n",
      "people and this [type of interaction] stimulates me”\n",
      "(MM-4). As another manager stated, “You have to\n",
      "know what makes your employees tick, and it helps\n",
      "to know what happens in people’s lives outside\n",
      "work, to understand how their mind works” (MM-\n",
      "3). Managers in the social motivation group tended\n",
      "to suggest that providing emotion support to others\n",
      "was an important skill that could be used in other\n",
      "areas of life. One remarked that it was good to\n",
      "practice such supportive behavior because this\n",
      "might help the struggle to cope with “negativity in\n",
      "general.” One manager spoke about emotion help\n",
      "being in line with “the Christian spirit,” and added,\n",
      "“It’s the right thing to do” (HLM-1). To the extent\n",
      "that prosocial motives were mentioned by manag-\n",
      "ers, these tended to be associated with cases in\n",
      "which employees solicited emotion help, as indi-\n",
      "cated in Figure 3.\n",
      "Managers who expressed social rather than in-\n",
      "strumental motives, however, also nurtured the cal-\n",
      "culative expectation that they would gain some-\n",
      "thing back from the provision of emotion help—\n",
      "recognition of their efforts from subordinates. As\n",
      "one midranking manager noted:\n",
      "When . . . I have helped them [and enabled them to]\n",
      "focus [on their task], and if they start achieving\n",
      "[their job goals], what delights me is the recognition:\n",
      "Recognition in the sense that they know that I\n",
      "helped them. They have probably said something to\n",
      "my boss [about the fact] that I helped them. And\n",
      "April\n",
      "although he [my boss] might not say anything to me\n",
      "like “Thank you for talking to that person,” what I\n",
      "like about [it is] the recognition and warmth that\n",
      "you get from people. (MM-2)\n",
      "The emergent themes in Figure 2 also show a dis-\n",
      "crepancy with respect to how employees viewed\n",
      "managerial reciprocity expectations. Employees\n",
      "tended to insist they were under little or no obliga-\n",
      "tion to reciprocate managerial helping. We take up\n",
      "this incongruence between managerial and em-\n",
      "ployee expectations next.\n",
      "Research Question 3:\n",
      "Discrepant Role Expectations\n",
      "As Figure 3 shows (under the heading “Helping\n",
      "interaction takes place?”), in some cases of mana-\n",
      "gerial intervention, employees refused help, and\n",
      "therefore the process stopped. As in the example\n",
      "reported above, managers sometimes offered sup-\n",
      "port but found that their subordinates didn’t want\n",
      "it. In all other cases, the managers provided help,\n",
      "whether this was first solicited by employees\n",
      "or not.\n",
      "Did managers consider emotion helping to be\n",
      "part of their required job duties? The answer to\n",
      "the first part of our third research question is that\n",
      "managers typically regarded such activity as discre-\n",
      "tionary and outside of their mandated roles, as the\n",
      "second column in Figure 1 shows. Help with neg-\n",
      "ative emotions was not considered by the managers\n",
      "to be part of their job description but was seen as\n",
      "something “extra,” as a “voluntary” effort arising\n",
      "from an underlying disposition rather than from an\n",
      "organizational requirement. As one manager ex-\n",
      "plained concerning the tendency to provide emo-\n",
      "tion help on a discretionary basis: “My subordi-\n",
      "nates should not think that’s what I’m there for. . . .\n",
      "People in other companies don’t feel comfortable\n",
      "talking to their manager [about their emo-\n",
      "tions]” (MM-3).\n",
      "Thus, in the words of one manager, subordinates\n",
      "“should know what I am doing [by way of provid-\n",
      "ing emotion help] is over and above my responsi-\n",
      "bilities as a manager” (HLM-7). Managers perceived\n",
      "their emotion helping to be extra-role behavior. But\n",
      "this view differed from those of subordinates. As\n",
      "the bottom panel in Figure 1 shows, subordinates\n",
      "tended to see managerial interventions to provide\n",
      "emotion help as part of the “natural” responsibility\n",
      "of managers, particularly in the case of work-re-\n",
      "lated emotional problems. Thus, employees viewed2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "emotion help as in-role behavior on the part of\n",
      "managers. For some employees, the expectation ex-\n",
      "tended to help with emotion problems in the work-\n",
      "place that originated from difficulties outside of\n",
      "work, as the following quotation from one of the\n",
      "subordinates indicates:\n",
      "I had a big problem at home. I was feeling very\n",
      "unsettled. I had bottled up my emotions. In this\n",
      "situation when you are looking for help it tends to\n",
      "be someone . . . you consider a friend. . . . Or\n",
      "someone who is quite senior, in a supervisory role,\n",
      "and it is their duty in a sense to ask everybody\n",
      "whether they are ok and how they are coping. That’s\n",
      "their job, really. . . . They need to make sure that you\n",
      "are OK in general. This responsibility comes with\n",
      "their job. (E-4)\n",
      "Subordinates’ tendencies to see emotion help as\n",
      "expected in-role behavior on the part of managers\n",
      "was reinforced by the proactivity of some manag-\n",
      "ers. Managers who actively sought out those in\n",
      "emotional distress rather than passively waiting to\n",
      "be asked for help might have created the impres-\n",
      "sion that such emotion helping was an expected\n",
      "part of managerial job performance.\n",
      "Subordinates generally expected their managers\n",
      "to help them cope with negative emotion. A junior\n",
      "consultant remarked that “Being a manager is not\n",
      "just about setting targets—it’s about making sure\n",
      "that people achieve their highest potential. You\n",
      "can’t do that without [providing] emotional sup-\n",
      "port” (E-1). Most of the subordinates suggested they\n",
      "would “expect a sympathetic ear,” because “the\n",
      "role of the manager is to support and look after his\n",
      "staff and [providing emotion help] would be a nat-\n",
      "ural thing to do” (E-7). Some of the direct reports\n",
      "differentiated between personal and work-related\n",
      "problems, suggesting “If I have real problems at\n",
      "home, and they bring down my performance, it’s\n",
      "not my manager’s job to support me, but if they are\n",
      "work-related, then it is her job” (E-8).\n",
      "Did the receipt of emotion help require recip-\n",
      "rocation? Owing to differences in perceived role\n",
      "definitions, some subordinates felt either no need\n",
      "or limited and specific obligation to repay their\n",
      "managers for the emotion help they received (see\n",
      "summary of emergent themes in the bottom half of\n",
      "Figure 2). The former, “no obligation,” view was\n",
      "justified by the argument that managers who\n",
      "helped subordinates with their negative emotions\n",
      "were amply repaid by the organization. For exam-\n",
      "ple, one subordinate argued as follows: “[The man-\n",
      "ager] gets his bonus as a result of the work of the\n",
      "345\n",
      "team. He benefits if the team is happy and is work-\n",
      "ing well. That’s where he gets his reward from”\n",
      "(E-5). Another subordinate commented: “They\n",
      "[managers] are helping themselves,” because “the\n",
      "cost of not providing any sort of [emotional] sup-\n",
      "port is greater than the cost of providing that sup-\n",
      "port” (E-8). One of the low-ranking individuals\n",
      "reckoned, “It is less in the interest of the subordi-\n",
      "nate to help the manager, because if the team sales\n",
      "increase and the manager is happier, but my sales\n",
      "remain constant, it is a waste of my time to make\n",
      "sure that the manager is OK” (E-9).\n",
      "A subordinate of the manager with the highest\n",
      "score in the emotion-helping network gave the fol-\n",
      "lowing account: “I genuinely think that he [my\n",
      "manager] is a nice bloke. You don’t get the idea that\n",
      "he is doing it [emotion helping] from a business\n",
      "perspective. He always gave me the impression that\n",
      "he was doing it purely to help me personally. The\n",
      "business result was as a result of the fact that he\n",
      "had helped me personally, wanting to make my life\n",
      "a bit easier. Genuinely, he is that sort of guy, it’s his\n",
      "personality. A lot of people probably say that about\n",
      "him inside and outside the company” (MM-1). The\n",
      "respective manager, on the other hand, self-attrib-\n",
      "uted a more instrumental motive: “It’s in my inter-\n",
      "est to tackle this issue. I could benefit from it,\n",
      "because there could be something that could affect\n",
      "my team. I get bonuses for what we achieve”\n",
      "(HLM-1).\n",
      "Some subordinates professed a limited and spe-\n",
      "cific obligation view, expecting that the receipt of\n",
      "emotion help should be reciprocated in the same\n",
      "way. As one subordinate noted: “I am an emotional\n",
      "helper to my boss” (E-12). None of the subordinates\n",
      "interviewed mentioned owing commitment, loy-\n",
      "alty, and extra productivity that some managers\n",
      "had expected of them. But to the extent that subor-\n",
      "dinates themselves approached managers for help,\n",
      "they tended to attribute prosocial motives to the\n",
      "managers.\n",
      "Research Question 4: Patterns of Emotion Help\n",
      "and Outcomes from Discrepant Expectations\n",
      "How was help provided? Managers exhibited a\n",
      "range of helping tactics. Based on classifying man-\n",
      "agerial activities from interview reports from those\n",
      "who were helped, Table 2 shows, for each of the\n",
      "managers people mentioned as active in providing\n",
      "help, whether or not each manager engaged in lis-\n",
      "tening (representing 27% of the comments on how\n",
      "helped was provided); validating (36%); reframing346\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "April\n",
      "TABLE 2\n",
      "Types of Emotion Help a\n",
      "Manager Listening\n",
      "1\n",
      "2\n",
      "3\n",
      "4\n",
      "5\n",
      "6\n",
      "7\n",
      "8\n",
      "9\n",
      "10\n",
      "11\n",
      "12\n",
      "13\n",
      "14\n",
      "Provision of emotion help b X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "27%\n",
      "Validating: Empathy\n",
      "and Ego-Strengthening\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "Reframing\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "Transforming\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "Advising\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "X\n",
      "36%\n",
      "18%\n",
      "9%\n",
      "10%\n",
      "a\n",
      "Only those managers indicated as providing emotional help to colleagues are included in this table. “X” indicates that a manager was\n",
      "reported as providing this type of emotion help to a colleague.\n",
      "b\n",
      "The percentage of comments relating to provision of emotion help.\n",
      "(18%); transforming (9%); and advising (10%).\n",
      "Thus, to take the example of the single manager\n",
      "listed under the category “transforming through\n",
      "positivity,” three different subordinates referred to\n",
      "this particular manager as providing this kind of\n",
      "help. There were eight other comments concerning\n",
      "this tactic, but they were not associated with any\n",
      "particular individual manager.\n",
      "With respect to the first aspect of emotion help—\n",
      "listening—the interviews revealed that, irrespec-\n",
      "tive of whether emotional problems could be traced\n",
      "to personal issues or work situations, all emotion\n",
      "helpers provided a “listening ear” to those troubled\n",
      "by negative emotions. As one subordinate said\n",
      "about her manager: “Basically, he just sits there and\n",
      "listens to you” (E-5). Another one described this\n",
      "emotion helping interaction as letting people “get\n",
      "the problem off the chest” (E-4). There were also\n",
      "indications that emotion helpers sometimes role-\n",
      "modeled self-disclosure and emotion awareness, as\n",
      "reported by this subordinate: “He opened himself\n",
      "and this allowed me to open myself more and let\n",
      "out a lot of this stuff that you usually don’t talk\n",
      "about” (E-3).\n",
      "As Table 2 indicates, just under half of the help-\n",
      "ers helped validate employee emotions by provid-\n",
      "ing an empathic environment that strengthened\n",
      "self-confidence. Such helpers were described by\n",
      "employees as “big-hearted” and as “creating\n",
      "warmth.” The process of validation involved pro-\n",
      "viding reassurance concerning how individuals\n",
      "saw themselves. As the comment from one direct\n",
      "report suggests, “He gave me the confidence that I\n",
      "could cope” (MM-1).\n",
      "Those in the grip of negative emotions were (as\n",
      "Table 2 shows) encouraged by some emotion help-\n",
      "ers to “reframe” emotions through a process of re-\n",
      "flection and the reorganization of experience in\n",
      "new narratives. Reframing was described (by the\n",
      "helpers) in terms of helping people to “step away\n",
      "from their problems” (E-2), to see “both sides of the\n",
      "story” (E-11), to see “the whole picture” (E-9), “to\n",
      "refocus” (E-3), and “to come back to rational think-\n",
      "ing” (E-7). From the perspective of those suffering\n",
      "negative emotions, this emotion work was de-\n",
      "scribed as helping people “look at the problem\n",
      "from a third-party view” (E-4), “put everything in\n",
      "perspective” (E-9), and “see the wood from the\n",
      "trees” (HLM-2).\n",
      "Emotion transformation is about changing nega-\n",
      "tive emotions into positive ones. In total, 11 com-\n",
      "ments were made describing this tactic, but for 8 of\n",
      "these comments the name of the helper was not\n",
      "indicated. Three of the comments could be clearly\n",
      "attributed to HLM-1, because interviewees explic-\n",
      "itly mentioned his name. A subordinate noted that\n",
      "HLM-1 was “quite humorous and funny” (E-3), an-\n",
      "other mentioned that, “we laugh and I feel much\n",
      "better” (E-5), and a third one commented that this\n",
      "emotion helper was able to “sell ideas in a positive\n",
      "way” (E-11). Finally, the majority of the managers\n",
      "in our sample engaged in providing advice to those2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "suffering from negative emotions. As one manager\n",
      "described this process: “I say don’t worry about\n",
      "that—this is what you can do” (MM-6).\n",
      "Emotion helping and outcomes of discrepant\n",
      "expectations. First, we should note that managers\n",
      "viewed their helping efforts as effective in prevent-\n",
      "ing negative emotional contagion across teams, in\n",
      "promoting performance and sales, and in improv-\n",
      "ing work atmosphere. We choose not to focus on\n",
      "these outcomes, given that they have been well\n",
      "established in prior research. In keeping with our\n",
      "fourth research question, we focused on outcomes\n",
      "of discrepant expectations between managers and\n",
      "subordinates with respect to roles and reciprocity.\n",
      "Overall, two general patterns of emotion helping\n",
      "emerged from our data, as illustrated in Figure 4.\n",
      "The first, short-cut, pattern involved managers lis-\n",
      "tening to subordinates and often providing advice.\n",
      "Listening and advice giving were universally re-\n",
      "garded by subordinates as standard aspects of man-\n",
      "agers’ jobs, so the likelihood of discrepancies con-\n",
      "cerning expectations of reciprocity for such help\n",
      "was high. The second pattern of emotion helping\n",
      "followed a more elaborated route that involved not\n",
      "347\n",
      "just listening and advising, but also more extensive\n",
      "involvement that included one or more of the fol-\n",
      "lowing: validating, reframing, and transforming.\n",
      "This elaborated pattern of managerial helping was\n",
      "likely to prompt feelings of gratitude on the part of\n",
      "those receiving help. Indeed, as Figure 4 shows, the\n",
      "short-cut and elaborated patterns were distin-\n",
      "guished in that the elaborated pattern prompted\n",
      "outcomes that were in addition to those prompted\n",
      "by the short-cut pattern.\n",
      "Figure 4 summarizes our finding that both pat-\n",
      "terns of emotion helping by managers related to a\n",
      "positive outcome for managers: attributions by sub-\n",
      "ordinates of leadership qualities to managers. The\n",
      "expectation on the part of subordinates that man-\n",
      "agers should provide emotion help was related to\n",
      "the widely shared prototype of the emotion helper\n",
      "as “someone with experience and seniority” (E-4).\n",
      "One interviewee described emotion helpers as\n",
      "“more experienced and gregarious colleagues who\n",
      "are more wise about life in general” (E-2). One\n",
      "junior employee said about his manager, “I look up\n",
      "to him and see him more as a father figure” (E-3),\n",
      "whereas another employee commented concerning\n",
      "FIGURE 4\n",
      "Emergent Model of How Two Patterns of Managerial Helping Relate to Outcomes of\n",
      "Discrepant Expectations\n",
      "How is help provided?\n",
      "Outcomes of discrepant expectations?\n",
      "Positive\n",
      "Shortcut:\n",
      "•\n",
      "•\n",
      "Listening\n",
      "Advising\n",
      "Elaborated Pattern:\n",
      "• Listening\n",
      "•\n",
      "•\n",
      "• Validating\n",
      "Reframing\n",
      "Transforming\n",
      "through positivity\n",
      "•\n",
      "Advising\n",
      "Managers\n",
      "Attribution of leadership\n",
      "qualities\n",
      "Subordinates\n",
      "Emotion help without\n",
      "indebtedness\n",
      "Dark Side\n",
      "Managers\n",
      "Disappointment,\n",
      "perceived breach of reciprocal\n",
      "exchange\n",
      "Subordinates\n",
      "Distrust of managers who are\n",
      "seen as offering help as part of\n",
      "their managerial role\n",
      "Managers\n",
      "Receipt of subordinate\n",
      "expressions of gratitude, but\n",
      "only in cases where exceptional\n",
      "help is provided Managers\n",
      "Significant stress, burnout, and\n",
      "disappointment in the absence of\n",
      "reciprocity; anxiety about\n",
      "creating employee dependence\n",
      "Subordinates\n",
      "Perception of supportive\n",
      "organizational work climate Subordinates\n",
      "Worry about possible damage to\n",
      "relationships with managers348\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "her relationship with her manager: “She is very\n",
      "maternal” (E4). A positive outcome of the role dis-\n",
      "crepancy, then, for managers was that, because\n",
      "managerial emotion helping behaviors (whether\n",
      "short-cut or elaborated) were seen by subordinates\n",
      "as in-role, managers active in this role tended to be\n",
      "attributed qualities such as wisdom, and tended to\n",
      "be looked up to as inspiring figures.\n",
      "For subordinates, granting wisdom and parental\n",
      "qualities to managers may have helped relieve sub-\n",
      "ordinates from the necessity of repaying indebted-\n",
      "ness in other ways. Further, employees who re-\n",
      "ceived the more elaborated set of helping behaviors\n",
      "regarded the overall organizational work climate as\n",
      "supportive because of the attention their personal\n",
      "problems received from managers. For example,\n",
      "one subordinate argued as follows: “It doesn’t take\n",
      "genius to figure out that when you step into an\n",
      "office and everyone is happy, there has to be an\n",
      "emotional network in there. It’s a very open,\n",
      "friendly company. You feel like you are part of one\n",
      "small company where everyone gets on. . . . [It]\n",
      "does build relationships, it’s a very good thing”\n",
      "(E-14). Another subordinate commented: “If people\n",
      "are working in that kind of environment, they are\n",
      "probably much more likely to remain working in\n",
      "that environment” (E-9).\n",
      "There was gratitude expressed to the emotion\n",
      "helper with the most elaborated pattern (HLM-1)\n",
      "for the extensive help he provided, but such ex-\n",
      "pressions were exceptional. Thus, one of his sub-\n",
      "ordinates noted: “I have fed it back to him on a\n",
      "couple of occasions, but for the other guys, I don’t\n",
      "think I would make a conscious effort of thanking\n",
      "them for their support as such” (MM-1). Typically,\n",
      "managers and direct reports alike were aware that\n",
      "incongruent expectations and incongruent recipro-\n",
      "cation caused disappointment. Managers who pro-\n",
      "vided either the short-cut or the more elaborated\n",
      "pattern of helping tended to feel “let down and\n",
      "disappointed” (MM-3) at what they perceived to be\n",
      "breaches of expected reciprocity. For managers\n",
      "who provided only short-cut help, there was un-\n",
      "happiness at the perceived lack of gratitude. As one\n",
      "middle manager expressed it: “Managing people is\n",
      "a thankless job. I know how well thank you goes\n",
      "down, but you very rarely get it for yourself” (MM-\n",
      "3). One consequence of processing the negative\n",
      "emotions of others through the more elaborated\n",
      "pattern of helping was that “You do get stressed out\n",
      "and take it home with you. One is definitely suffer-\n",
      "ing as a result of this” (MM-2). Managers providing\n",
      "such extensive help recognized that “they could be\n",
      "April\n",
      "relied upon too heavily” which could “take its toll\n",
      "on you” (HLM-2).\n",
      "The following incident recounted by a manager\n",
      "illustrates the disappointment when subordinate\n",
      "reciprocation failed to materialize.\n",
      "There was a member of staff who was going through\n",
      "problems outside work and I spent a lot of time with\n",
      "her to try and get her through it at work as well as\n",
      "give her emotional support. And when she was turn-\n",
      "ing the corner, she said “I am leaving [the firm],”\n",
      "which was completely out of the blue to me. I must\n",
      "admit my initial reaction was “Oh, I feel really let\n",
      "down. I have put a lot of work into you as an indi-\n",
      "vidual on a personal basis.” A couple of days later\n",
      "she said, “You don’t seem very happy for me.” I\n",
      "said, “I am happy for you, but I feel actually a bit let\n",
      "down and disappointed that you resigned.” And it\n",
      "was only then that she realized, “Oh, I didn’t think\n",
      "about that,” because probably she thought it’s my\n",
      "job. . . . Direct reports sometimes do not realize [that\n",
      "it is not part of my job]. Or take it for granted. They\n",
      "do think it is part of your job. (MM-3)\n",
      "Continuing with the negative side of the ledger\n",
      "summarized in Figure 4, managers mentioned the\n",
      "tendency for employees in receipt of extensive\n",
      "emotion help (which was assumed by subordinates\n",
      "to be available as part of the managerial role) to\n",
      "become overly dependent. One manager joked that\n",
      "she had become “the agony aunt” (MM-5) for a\n",
      "couple of her direct reports. Subordinates were\n",
      "concerned about another potentially negative out-\n",
      "come: that opening up to a manager concerning\n",
      "emotional problems might damage them in the\n",
      "manager’s eyes, leading to a lowering of the subor-\n",
      "dinate-manager relationship. Managers proffering\n",
      "help were seen by subordinates quite differently\n",
      "than the managers saw themselves: not as col-\n",
      "leagues going beyond their expected roles but as\n",
      "bosses doing their jobs. This discrepancy in how\n",
      "emotion help was viewed contributed to a lack of\n",
      "trust. One of the employees, for example, explained\n",
      "that he was reluctant to approach his manager for\n",
      "any kind of emotion help because “I don’t want\n",
      "him to think that I am weak” (E-6). Given these\n",
      "discrepant views, bringing negative feelings to the\n",
      "attention of supervisors was seen by subordinates\n",
      "as fraught with risk, as one middle manager under-\n",
      "stood: “Some people might think it’s for weak peo-\n",
      "ple and they might get labeled by very narrow-\n",
      "minded managers as weak” (MM-2). A senior\n",
      "manager was concerned that emotion helping\n",
      "could lead to the impairment of relationships be-\n",
      "cause of this destruction of trust: “Some people are2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "very suspicious, because . . . knowing these things\n",
      "[emotional issues] is going to be a benefit [for the\n",
      "emotion helper]” (HLM-6). There was, then, evi-\n",
      "dence that employees did not wholly trust manag-\n",
      "ers to be recipients of personal information that\n",
      "might portray the employees as emotionally weak.\n",
      "Summary of Results\n",
      "Organizational members were under scrutiny not\n",
      "just from computer systems tracking the pace of\n",
      "work but also from each other, in terms of the\n",
      "monitoring of negative emotions related to both\n",
      "work and nonwork problems. Managers, as a group,\n",
      "tended to provide emotion help not only to each\n",
      "other but also to their subordinates. Managers were\n",
      "active in monitoring the emotions of subordinates\n",
      "and intervening to offer help. Managers’ motiva-\n",
      "tions were self-described as instrumental rather\n",
      "than altruistic. But managers active in the provi-\n",
      "sion of emotion help tended to conceive of such\n",
      "help as extra-role behavior “over and above” their\n",
      "duties. Managers expected employees to recipro-\n",
      "cate with commitment and personal loyalty. Sub-\n",
      "ordinates on the other hand, defined emotional\n",
      "support as managerial in-role behavior and mostly\n",
      "resisted any obligations of reciprocation. As Figure\n",
      "4 illustrates, discrepant role expectations contrib-\n",
      "ute both positive and negative outcomes. Looking\n",
      "at the positive side of the ledger, discrepant expec-\n",
      "tations tend to result in managers being attributed\n",
      "leadership qualities by subordinates who assume\n",
      "emotion-helping managers are simply exceptional\n",
      "role models. These attributions help relieve subor-\n",
      "dinates of feelings of personal indebtedness for\n",
      "help received, and help create a supportive organ-\n",
      "izational climate in cases where subordinates re-\n",
      "ceive elaborated help. On the negative side of the\n",
      "ledger, discrepant expectations are likely to leave\n",
      "managers feeling disappointed at the lack of reci-\n",
      "procity and (in the case of managers providing\n",
      "more elaborated help) feeling stressed from deliv-\n",
      "ering emotion helping in the absence of reciprocity.\n",
      "Subordinates in turn worry about possible damage\n",
      "to their relationships with managers if they receive\n",
      "emotion help from those above them in the hierar-\n",
      "chy. Subordinates also may develop dependence\n",
      "on heroic managers who provide the elaborated\n",
      "type of help but are perceived not to require\n",
      "reciprocation.\n",
      "349\n",
      "DISCUSSION\n",
      "Our analysis proceeds from bases in both critical\n",
      "theory and work psychology to forge a new under-\n",
      "standing of the micropolitics of organizational\n",
      "work. In particular, our study surfaces discrepant\n",
      "interpretations of managers’ provision of emotion\n",
      "help. To date, research has focused on antecedents\n",
      "of good citizenship behavior (e.g., Bowler & Brass,\n",
      "2006; Settoon & Mossholder, 2002; Spitzmuller,\n",
      "Van Dyne, & Ilies, 2008), with some research atten-\n",
      "tion to the consequences for those providing such\n",
      "behavior. Thus, providers of OCBs achieve higher\n",
      "performance evaluations and greater managerial re-\n",
      "ward allocations (Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, &\n",
      "Blume, 2009) but may suffer overload, stress, and\n",
      "work-family conflicts (Bolino & Turnley, 2005;\n",
      "Frost, 2003; Frost & Robinson, 1999). Research has\n",
      "neglected the possibility of incongruence between\n",
      "those providing such help and those receiving it,\n",
      "although we do know that supervisors and their\n",
      "subordinates differ concerning what is considered\n",
      "OCB on the part of subordinates (Morrison, 1994).\n",
      "What is striking in our findings is that both par-\n",
      "ties—the employees and the managers—accepted\n",
      "the necessity of controlling negative emotions for\n",
      "the good of the organization, in line with the gen-\n",
      "eral, positive-psychology emphasis on positivity\n",
      "and compassionate social relationships (Cameron,\n",
      "Dutton, & Quinn, 2003). In the open-plan offices,\n",
      "people easily monitored each other, and it was\n",
      "possible therefore for managers to notice if subor-\n",
      "dinates looked upset. The norms in this service\n",
      "culture seemed to permit managers to intervene\n",
      "without having to wait for subordinates to explic-\n",
      "itly ask for help.\n",
      "The discrepancy between employees and manag-\n",
      "ers centers on the issue of whether such managerial\n",
      "help should be considered part and parcel of the\n",
      "managerial role. The employees indicated that\n",
      "managers were attributed parental powers and seen\n",
      "as beneficent and wise guardians, whose ministra-\n",
      "tions were expected as a matter of course by needy\n",
      "recipients. Managers did not report perceiving\n",
      "themselves as parental figures but indicated that\n",
      "they responded to situational demands—such as\n",
      "the sight of a suffering employee— by going beyond\n",
      "their expected managerial responsibilities. Particu-\n",
      "larly in the case of managers who frequently inter-\n",
      "vene to offer unsolicited help, good citizenship\n",
      "behavior is likely to be viewed as part of the indi-\n",
      "vidual’s job and not as anything extra (Bergeron,\n",
      "2007; Van Dyne, Cummings, & McLean Parks,350\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "1995). Given that employees are typically unable to\n",
      "directly reciprocate by providing emotion help to\n",
      "managers, employees are likely to resist seeing\n",
      "emotion help as anything other than normal work-\n",
      "place interaction.\n",
      "Thus, whereas those who were helped tended to\n",
      "perceive their helpers as doubly powerful figures—\n",
      "invested both with formal authority as managers\n",
      "and with the mantle of parental authority—the\n",
      "helpers saw themselves as opportunistically react-\n",
      "ing to situational contingencies to do favors for\n",
      "subordinates in need. Exchange relationships suf-\n",
      "fer when one party fails to reciprocate (Cotterell,\n",
      "Eisenberger, & Speicher, 1992). In the case of emo-\n",
      "tion help, we found incongruence: managers ex-\n",
      "pected reciprocity in terms of commitment and loy-\n",
      "alty, but subordinates failed to recognize their\n",
      "obligation. Indeed, in the one case in which a man-\n",
      "ager went to considerable lengths to help a suffer-\n",
      "ing subordinate manage her problems outside of\n",
      "work, the subordinate responded, once the prob-\n",
      "lems were ameliorated, by promptly resigning. Em-\n",
      "ployees simply failed to acknowledge their obliga-\n",
      "tions to reciprocate the help provided by managers.\n",
      "Employees tended to interpret managers’ interven-\n",
      "tions as self-interested, and saw the provision of\n",
      "emotion help as an expected part of the manage-\n",
      "rial role.\n",
      "Our model suggests the paradox that helping be-\n",
      "havior designed to ameliorate negative emotions\n",
      "may itself generate negative emotions on the part of\n",
      "managers waiting in vain for employees to repay\n",
      "their kindness with personal loyalty. Managers in\n",
      "these high emotional labor settings may expect em-\n",
      "ployees to see their efforts as prosocial, organiza-\n",
      "tional citizenship–type behaviors and expect em-\n",
      "ployees to show gratitude. Employees, on their\n",
      "side, are likely to attribute managers’ helping be-\n",
      "haviors to the general culture of the organization\n",
      "rather than to reciprocate with loyalty to specific\n",
      "managers (Eisenberger et al., 2010). Disconfirma-\n",
      "tion of managers’ expectations can result in a range\n",
      "of negative emotions such as anxiety, insecurity,\n",
      "and helplessness (Rimé, 2007: 473). From the em-\n",
      "ployee perspective, the amelioration of negative\n",
      "emotions is likely to require much more than the\n",
      "empathic listening provided by the majority of\n",
      "managers: simply encouraging people to talk about\n",
      "their negative emotions has been shown to be “ir-\n",
      "relevant to emotional recovery” (Rimé, 2007: 470).\n",
      "Therefore, our emergent model suggests that in-\n",
      "congruence— concerning how emotion help is\n",
      "viewed and whether reciprocation is required—\n",
      "April\n",
      "fuels negative (as well as positive) outcomes in\n",
      "organizations. For managers, negative outcomes in-\n",
      "clude disappointment and increased stress,\n",
      "whereas for employees these include diminished\n",
      "trust in the supervisory process. According to our\n",
      "results, managers’ justifications for helping subor-\n",
      "dinates are overwhelmingly instrumental: to facil-\n",
      "itate sales growth and productivity. Managers ap-\n",
      "pear to be intuitively aware of results from the\n",
      "emotion management literature showing that help-\n",
      "ing employees with their emotional needs tends to\n",
      "increase employee commitment and performance\n",
      "(e.g., Armeli, Eisenberger, Fasolo, & Lynch, 1998).\n",
      "Supportive work behaviors (such as encourage-\n",
      "ment for individuals who are down) generally en-\n",
      "hance performance quality, customer satisfaction,\n",
      "and other measures of organizational effectiveness\n",
      "(see the review in Bacharach, Bamberger, and\n",
      "Vashdi [2005]). But if these supportive work behav-\n",
      "iors themselves generate negative outcomes, then\n",
      "anticipated organizational benefits may fail to\n",
      "materialize.\n",
      "Contribution to Theory and Research\n",
      "Although leadership theory has long recognized\n",
      "differences in leadership behaviors (Bedeian &\n",
      "Hunt, 2006), it has neglected the possibility of in-\n",
      "congruence between how leaders and followers\n",
      "view themselves. Thus, one contribution of our\n",
      "article is to emphasize the possibility of different\n",
      "attributions concerning the behaviors of those in\n",
      "command. From a leadership theory perspective,\n",
      "transformational leadership includes individual-\n",
      "ized consideration—attention to followers’ feelings\n",
      "and needs (Avolio & Bass, 1995). Individually con-\n",
      "siderate leaders help subordinates deal with stress\n",
      "and other emotional problems in the workplace\n",
      "(Rafferty & Griffin, 2006). As summarized in Figure\n",
      "4, employees, in insisting that emotion helping be-\n",
      "haviors are part of the managerial role, may be\n",
      "attributing managers with effective leadership\n",
      "practice, in terms of transformational leadership\n",
      "behaviors (Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000). The managers\n",
      "may see themselves as engaging in purely transac-\n",
      "tional leadership, with their emotion helping be-\n",
      "havior as something quite different—personal in-\n",
      "terventions. Ironically, managers may be denied\n",
      "personal reciprocity from grateful subordinates, be-\n",
      "cause managers are seen as effective leaders rather\n",
      "than as colleagues going beyond the bounds\n",
      "of duty.2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "To the extent that discrepant expectations lead\n",
      "employees to see their managers as effective, con-\n",
      "siderate leaders, the employees are likely to re-\n",
      "spond with enthusiasm to managerial goal setting,\n",
      "thus enhancing work performance. According to\n",
      "one meta-analysis, leaders who provide subordi-\n",
      "nates with individualized consideration tend to be\n",
      "seen by subordinates as charismatic (r ⫽ .85; Lowe,\n",
      "Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). The pro-\n",
      "nouncements of such leaders are likely to be\n",
      "viewed as visionary, their encouragement is likely\n",
      "to incite extra effort, and their teams are likely to\n",
      "perform well (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003;\n",
      "Howell & Frost, 1989; Barling, Weber, & Kelloway,\n",
      "1996). Our research helps to redress the “dearth of\n",
      "conceptual and empirical research on explaining\n",
      "the relationships between these new [charismatic\n",
      "and transformational] leadership theories and\n",
      "followers’ affective states” (Avolio, Walumbwa, &\n",
      "Weber, 2009: 430).\n",
      "Discrepancies in role definitions are linked to\n",
      "individual and organizational outcomes. Incongru-\n",
      "ence in expectations can have pervasive negative\n",
      "effects on work behavior and on employees’ exit\n",
      "and loyalty behavior (Rousseau, 1995). Discrepant\n",
      "role expectations can also lead to supervisor-\n",
      "subordinate rating disagreements, with potential\n",
      "consequences for organizational effectiveness (At-\n",
      "water, Ostroff, Yammarino, & Fleenor, 1998). In-\n",
      "congruent role descriptions and the resulting dis-\n",
      "crepant expectations can also influence the quality\n",
      "of leader-member exchange relationships as a re-\n",
      "sult of perceived dissimilarity (cf. Gerstner &\n",
      "Day, 1997).\n",
      "Our article contributes to critical theory concern-\n",
      "ing supervisory control over professionals’ emo-\n",
      "tions and behaviors. Prior work has emphasized\n",
      "that in professional firms, mentors and mentees\n",
      "control each other’s behaviors and emotions. Resis-\n",
      "tance to controlling behavior surfaces in antago-\n",
      "nism to headquarters rather than to immediate su-\n",
      "pervisors (Covaleski, Dirsmith, Heian, & Samuel,\n",
      "1998). Managers, in carrying out their work roles,\n",
      "confront an inherent and perhaps inescapable am-\n",
      "bivalence, given the expectation that they will both\n",
      "monitor employee behavior and foster a supportive\n",
      "and developmental work atmosphere (Mintzberg,\n",
      "1973). The dual expectation—to control work ac-\n",
      "tivity even to the extent of crushing troublemakers,\n",
      "and to manage negative emotions so that employees\n",
      "work together and like each other— has both bene-\n",
      "fits and drawbacks for managers and for employees\n",
      "that we explored in this research. Future research\n",
      "351\n",
      "can investigate whether, in circumstances where\n",
      "emotional labor is part of work performance, there\n",
      "is likely to be a managerial emphasis on tight con-\n",
      "trol over behavior and emotions as well as an em-\n",
      "phasis on happy, cohesive, family-like together-\n",
      "ness. Given a disciplinary organizational culture,\n",
      "employees are likely to resist seeing managerial\n",
      "control efforts as simply collegial helpfulness.\n",
      "Our paper also contributes to the field of emotion\n",
      "management in organizations (see Bolton [2005] for\n",
      "a review). The emergent models in Figures 3 and 4\n",
      "represent a new understanding of the process of\n",
      "managerial intervention including likely positive\n",
      "and negative outcomes of discrepant role expecta-\n",
      "tions. Like many other work organizations, the one\n",
      "we investigated featured a culture of relatively in-\n",
      "tense control over workplace practices. Managers\n",
      "tended to be on the lookout for signs of emotional\n",
      "distress and were prepared to intervene, as neces-\n",
      "sary, in cases where upset individuals did not\n",
      "themselves request help.\n",
      "Our data revealed two main “signatures” of emo-\n",
      "tion help provision: (a) a short-cut (listening and\n",
      "giving advice), and (b) an elaborated process that\n",
      "involved not just listening but also validating, re-\n",
      "framing, or transforming. The short-cut was more\n",
      "likely to lead to discrepant expectations, in that\n",
      "employees were in no doubt that such listening and\n",
      "advising formed an integral aspect of managerial\n",
      "work, whereas in the mental accounting of manag-\n",
      "ers (cf. Thaler, 1999), even listening to and advising\n",
      "concerning emotional problems were labeled extra-\n",
      "role behaviors.\n",
      "There is a similarity between how managers\n",
      "acted in this organization and how peer counselors\n",
      "interact with coworkers in unionized organiza-\n",
      "tions, where assistance is provided out of the sight\n",
      "of supervisors even to those troubled colleagues\n",
      "who have not asked for it (Bacharach et al., 2001:\n",
      "114). The extension of managerial intervention to\n",
      "the personal aspects of people’s lives in the absence\n",
      "of any union-based resistance raises questions con-\n",
      "cerning the vulnerability of employees to manage-\n",
      "ment pressure. In situations where there are power\n",
      "differences between those helping and those being\n",
      "helped, patterns of reciprocity are likely to be dis-\n",
      "torted (Gouldner, 1960).\n",
      "Future Research\n",
      "Bureaucracy has developed to the point where\n",
      "human resource managers in large organizations try\n",
      "to anticipate and deal with many issues previously352\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "regarded as private matters, such as improving em-\n",
      "ployee morale (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939),\n",
      "providing Christmas gifts for employees’ children\n",
      "(Baron, Dobbin, & Jennings, 1986), and eliminating\n",
      "employees’ offensive body odor (De Botton, 2009).\n",
      "Future research can investigate what kinds of emo-\n",
      "tion helping on the part of the managers do, in fact,\n",
      "restore employees as productive organizational cit-\n",
      "izens and prevent emotional contamination of oth-\n",
      "ers in the organization, and whether there are un-\n",
      "anticipated consequences of such interventions.\n",
      "Our research surfaced five different types of emo-\n",
      "tion helping on offer to employees, and the typol-\n",
      "ogy matches some of the needs that prior research\n",
      "has identified as resulting from negative emotional\n",
      "experiences (Rimé, 2007: 474). A major exception\n",
      "is listening, which in itself does not turn out to be\n",
      "useful in helping people recover from negative\n",
      "emotions (Rimé, 2007: 471). Also missing from Ta-\n",
      "ble 2 is any sense that managers provide the kind of\n",
      "concrete help and assistance that prior research\n",
      "(summarized in Rimé, 2007) suggests can facilitate\n",
      "people moving beyond difficult personal situa-\n",
      "tions. What is striking in Table 2 is the prevalence\n",
      "of behaviors that are relatively superficial: listening\n",
      "and giving advice. The behaviors that really make a\n",
      "difference in helping people recover their emo-\n",
      "tional balance—social validation, social support,\n",
      "reframing, recreation of meaning, and concrete\n",
      "help and assistance (Rimé, 2007)—are much less in\n",
      "evidence on the part of managers. Future research\n",
      "can investigate whether the provision of profes-\n",
      "sional assistance programs to employees results in\n",
      "better outcomes for both employees and the com-\n",
      "pany than the relatively amateurish help provided\n",
      "by intervening managers.\n",
      "Even if minimal emotion helping does little to\n",
      "improve emotional well-being, this helping may\n",
      "bind employees to the organization by creating a\n",
      "culture in which emotion problems can be dis-\n",
      "cussed (Martin et al., 1998), or by fostering em-\n",
      "ployee indebtedness for favors received (cf. Gould-\n",
      "ner, 1960). Future research could investigate\n",
      "whether, as prior work has suggested, “the compas-\n",
      "sionate workplace may be a factor in both attracting\n",
      "and retaining staff” (Frost, Dutton, Worline, & Wil-\n",
      "son, 2000: 38). Particularly in the case of manage-\n",
      "rial help with negative emotions deriving from\n",
      "nonwork situations, employees may feel personally\n",
      "indebted and be less able to rationalize such help as\n",
      "an expected part of the managerial role.\n",
      "The employees we investigated worked in open-\n",
      "plan spaces, in which asking for help constituted a\n",
      "April\n",
      "relatively difficult act, given that it was exposed to\n",
      "public view (cf. Bamberger, 2009: 67). Even people\n",
      "who work in private offices, such as professors,\n",
      "find that processing negative emotions at work ex-\n",
      "poses them to potentially negative repercussions.\n",
      "But privacy may enable private-office workers to\n",
      "seek assistance from colleagues and be less subject\n",
      "to potentially intrusive questioning from supervi-\n",
      "sors (Frost et al., 2000). We do know that people\n",
      "who work in open-plan (relative to private) offices\n",
      "tend to suffer from decreased satisfaction and mo-\n",
      "tivation (Oldham & Brass, 1979) as well as in-\n",
      "creased emotional strain (see the review in Sutton\n",
      "and Rafaeli [1987]). Future research can explore\n",
      "whether the absence of walls and barriers enables\n",
      "social relations among employees (cf. Oldham &\n",
      "Brass, 1979: 267–268), thereby facilitating shared\n",
      "norms of resistance to expectations by managers\n",
      "concerning reciprocation for help provided.\n",
      "To the extent that activist managers generally\n",
      "listen and empathize, but neither reciprocate self-\n",
      "disclosure nor actively intervene to solve emo-\n",
      "tional problems, they may seem to play the role of\n",
      "classical therapists (Goldstein & Goldberg, 2004),\n",
      "offering little about themselves but listening care-\n",
      "fully to the concerns of their “patients.” Managers,\n",
      "according to our data, seem to be viewed akin to\n",
      "parental figures whose duties include taking care of\n",
      "the emotional needs of their dependents. Future\n",
      "research can investigate whether the discrepancy\n",
      "between the expectations of managers and subordi-\n",
      "nates concerning emotion help may be related to\n",
      "what in the psychotherapy literature is known as\n",
      "“transference”—the process by which one person\n",
      "displaces onto an authority figure thoughts, feel-\n",
      "ings, or expectations that were originally directed\n",
      "toward important people of early childhood (Gold-\n",
      "stein & Goldberg, 2004). Because of the likelihood\n",
      "of gross power differences and the potential for\n",
      "emotional and personal abuse, the maintenance of\n",
      "careful boundaries between medical practitioners\n",
      "and patients is a major consideration in emotional\n",
      "therapy (Williams & Swartz, 1998). To the extent\n",
      "that managers act as freelance therapists, this\n",
      "boundary takes on multiple dimensions, as it in-\n",
      "volves not only a therapist-patient relationship but\n",
      "also a manager-subordinate one. Employees with\n",
      "emotional problems are vulnerable to loss of self-\n",
      "esteem, especially to the extent that problems are\n",
      "deemed to be embarrassing or stigmatizing (Bam-\n",
      "berger, 2009: 65). The potential for managers to\n",
      "exploit the vulnerability of emotionally distressed\n",
      "employees is always present, given the power dif-2013\n",
      "Toegel, Kilduff, and Anand\n",
      "ference, and given the dual nature of the managerial\n",
      "role as simultaneously supervisor and therapist.\n",
      "Future research can also explore whether the per-\n",
      "vasive differences between men and women with\n",
      "respect to emotional experiences (Simon & Nath,\n",
      "2004) and emotional expressiveness (Thoits, 1989)\n",
      "affect emotion helping in organizations. Are\n",
      "women managers more likely to offer help, and are\n",
      "managers (of both sexes) more likely to offer help to\n",
      "female subordinates? Recent work demonstrates\n",
      "differences between men and women in how their\n",
      "emotional expressions are viewed by others, and\n",
      "suggests that for women, expressing sadness is\n",
      "more highly approved of than expressing anger\n",
      "(Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008). Extending this re-\n",
      "search, based on our results, one could ask whether\n",
      "accepting help from managers might result in fe-\n",
      "male employees (relative to male employees) losing\n",
      "status.\n",
      "Organizational Implications\n",
      "How might employees protect themselves from\n",
      "the expectations on the part of managers that they\n",
      "“owe” a personal debt to those who have helped\n",
      "them with their emotional problems? The opportu-\n",
      "nity to help managers with their emotional prob-\n",
      "lems in return is likely to be unavailable, given\n",
      "status differences. Providing help, while refraining\n",
      "from requesting help, contributes to and reinforces\n",
      "the perception of high status (Flynn, Reagans,\n",
      "Amanatullah, & Ames, 2006). A positive psychol-\n",
      "ogy emphasis on the importance of emotion man-\n",
      "agement and the altruism of caring managers must\n",
      "be balanced by recognition of the dangers inherent\n",
      "in employees relying on managers for emotion help\n",
      "(Fineman, 2006). Following the logic of Figure 3,\n",
      "employees could define emotion helping as part\n",
      "and parcel of managers’ jobs— defined in such a\n",
      "way, emotion help would require no extra discre-\n",
      "tionary response by employees. To the extent that\n",
      "employees interact with managers only in the con-\n",
      "text of the workplace, and to the extent that poten-\n",
      "tial power and discretion is vested in the manage-\n",
      "rial role, employees can justify attributing\n",
      "managerial caring surveillance to the demands of\n",
      "the role rather than to the idiosyncrasies of the\n",
      "person (Turner, 1978), and thereby overcome the\n",
      "general tendency to attribute such distinctive be-\n",
      "havior to individual dispositions (cf. Ross, 1977).\n",
      "By refusing to acknowledge a reciprocal obligation\n",
      "beyond the normal work contract, employees can\n",
      "interpret the ambiguous emotion helping script to\n",
      "353\n",
      "their own advantage and refuse to let the manager\n",
      "step beyond the professional boundaries of the\n",
      "workplace.\n",
      "Given the potential problems resulting from dis-\n",
      "crepant role expectations, what should organiza-\n",
      "tions do? Managers can be educated concerning the\n",
      "wide-ranging aspects of the managerial role (cf.\n",
      "Mintzberg, 1973), and made aware that helping oth-\n",
      "ers with emotional problems is likely to be seen by\n",
      "subordinates as part and parcel of managerial work\n",
      "within the context of the organization’s overall sup-\n",
      "portive climate (cf. Eisenberger et al., 2010). The\n",
      "good news for managers should also be communi-\n",
      "cated: employees are likely to ascribe helping be-\n",
      "haviors on the part of managers to the quality of\n",
      "these managers’ leadership skills. At the same time,\n",
      "managers can be educated in the limits of their\n",
      "expertise when it comes to dealing with seriously\n",
      "upset subordinates.\n",
      "It is important to note limitations to our approach\n",
      "that can be addressed in future research endeavors.\n",
      "Recent research has indicated that handling the\n",
      "difficult emotions of others can have negative indi-\n",
      "vidual outcomes such as frustration, burnout, ill-\n",
      "ness, and failed personal and professional relation-\n",
      "ships (Frost, 2003; Kahn, 1993; Meyerson, 2000).\n",
      "As one of our informants noted, one consequence\n",
      "of processing the negative emotions of others is that\n",
      "“You do get stressed out and take it home with you.\n",
      "One is definitely suffering as a result of this.”\n",
      "Clearly, we need more research on how some of the\n",
      "downsides for managers of “toxin handling” (Frost\n",
      "& Robinson, 1999; Frost, 2003) can be mitigated.\n",
      "Further, we are not able in this research to trace\n",
      "either the positive or the negative outcomes of emo-\n",
      "tion helping interventions with respect to such as-\n",
      "pects as customer satisfaction, on the one hand, or\n",
      "employee productivity, on the other. Thus, future\n",
      "research can investigate whether the claims made\n",
      "on behalf of emotion helping are validated by re-\n",
      "sults in organization and in the marketplace.\n",
      "Conclusion\n",
      "Managers of organizations are empowered to\n",
      "control work processes in pursuit of productivity.\n",
      "Control involves monitoring, assessing, and disci-\n",
      "plining (rewarding and punishing) employees (Ed-\n",
      "wards, 1979). Thus, managers have discretion to\n",
      "intervene in many aspects of employees’ work. But\n",
      "work in modern organizations encompasses not\n",
      "just physical labor but also (in the case of service\n",
      "organizations) emotional labor (Hochschild,354\n",
      "Academy of Management Journal\n",
      "1983)—labor that involves the employment of emo-\n",
      "tions in the service of the organization. The control\n",
      "of emotional labor places managers in the position\n",
      "of having to monitor employees’ appropriate emo-\n",
      "tions and possibly intervene when emotions seem\n",
      "inappropriate. In this article, we focused on mana-\n",
      "gerial interventions to ameliorate employees’ neg-\n",
      "ative emotions. To the extent that these interven-\n",
      "tions represent efforts to control as well as to help,\n",
      "such interventions are likely to perpetuate incon-\n",
      "gruent perceptions and mixed outcomes.\n",
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      "APPENDIX\n",
      "Interview Protocol\n",
      "We try to understand how people use the support of\n",
      "others to cope with difficult emotions. I would ask you to\n",
      "think of a situation when you experienced stress, anxi-\n",
      "ety, tension or emotional pain and a colleague of yours\n",
      "helped you to cope with it.\n",
      "• Could you please describe this situation?\n",
      "• What kind of person was the emotion helper? Does\n",
      "everybody in the firm provide this kind of help or only\n",
      "some people?\n",
      "• How did X provide the emotion help you needed?\n",
      "What made you feel better?\n",
      "• Why do you think X provided the emotion help you\n",
      "needed?\n",
      "• What were the personal benefits/costs involved for X?\n",
      "• [If a manager is mentioned] Are managers expected to\n",
      "provide emotion help? Is emotion help part of their\n",
      "job? Do people “pay back” this help? In what form?\n",
      "• Do you think of yourself as an emotion helper?\n",
      "Ginka Toegel (Ginka.Toegel@imd.ch) is a professor of\n",
      "leadership at IMD, Lausanne. She received her Ph.D. in\n",
      "Psychology from Leipzig University and her Ph.D. in\n",
      "Management from London Business School. Her current\n",
      "research interests focus on emotion in organizations,\n",
      "control-related beliefs, and leadership effectiveness.\n",
      "Martin Kilduff (m.kilduff@ucl.ac.uk) is professor of or-\n",
      "ganizational behavior at University College London. He\n",
      "received his Ph.D. from Cornell University. His research\n",
      "interests include interpersonal networks, emotions, per-\n",
      "sonality, and philosophy of science.\n",
      "N. Anand (anand@imd.ch) is the Shell Professor of\n",
      "Global Leadership at IMD, Lausanne. He received his\n",
      "Ph.D. from Vanderbilt University. His research focuses\n",
      "on innovative organizational structures in professional\n",
      "firms, organizational field formation, and the use of so-\n",
      "cial networks in managing emotions.\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "f = open(\"1.txt\",'r')#file opened\n",
    "doc = f.read()\n",
    "print(doc)\n",
    "\n",
    "# from spacy.en import English\n",
    "# nlp = spacy.load(\"en\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 21,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# my_stop_words = [u'employees',u'managers', u'be', u'said', u'says', u'saying']\n",
    "# for stopword in my_stop_words:\n",
    "#     lexeme = nlp.vocab[stopword]\n",
    "#     lexeme.is_stop = True"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "AttributeError",
     "evalue": "'str' object has no attribute 'text'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m                            Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-22-c3864f78a817>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m()\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      3\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mfor\u001b[0m \u001b[0mw\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32min\u001b[0m \u001b[0mdoc\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      4\u001b[0m     \u001b[0;31m# if it's not a stop word or punctuation mark, add it to our article!\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 5\u001b[0;31m     \u001b[0;32mif\u001b[0m \u001b[0mw\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0mtext\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m!=\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m'\\n'\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mand\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mnot\u001b[0m \u001b[0mw\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0mis_stop\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mand\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mnot\u001b[0m \u001b[0mw\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0mis_punct\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mand\u001b[0m \u001b[0;32mnot\u001b[0m \u001b[0mw\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0mlike_num\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m:\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1;32m      6\u001b[0m         \u001b[0;31m# we add the lematized version of the word\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m      7\u001b[0m         \u001b[0marticle\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0mappend\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mw\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0mlemma_\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m: 'str' object has no attribute 'text'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# we add some words to the stop word list\n",
    "texts, article = [], []\n",
    "for w in doc:\n",
    "    # if it's not a stop word or punctuation mark, add it to our article!\n",
    "    if w.text != '\\n' and not w.is_stop and not w.is_punct and not w.like_num:\n",
    "        # we add the lematized version of the word\n",
    "        article.append(w.lemma_)\n",
    "    # if it's a new line, it means we're onto our next document\n",
    "    if w.text == '\\n':\n",
    "        texts.append(article)\n",
    "        article = []"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": []
  }
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